Ignaz Semmelweis
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Some [[alternative medicine]] proponents [[Galileo gambit|compare the establishment's dismissal of Semmelweis' hypothesis to its rejection of alternative therapies]]. However, there is one crucial difference: Semmelweis had statistical evidence, which was rejected because of the establishment's close-mindedness, while most CAM has only [[anecdotal evidence]], which is rejected because anecdotes aren't evidence. | Some [[alternative medicine]] proponents [[Galileo gambit|compare the establishment's dismissal of Semmelweis' hypothesis to its rejection of alternative therapies]]. However, there is one crucial difference: Semmelweis had statistical evidence, which was rejected because of the establishment's close-mindedness, while most CAM has only [[anecdotal evidence]], which is rejected because anecdotes aren't evidence. | ||
| − | There is a case somewhat similar to that of Semmelweis'. [[Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis]] (1787-1872) was a pioneer of the use of statistics in medicine. His statistical analysis showed that [[bloodletting]] was ineffective, but his work also met with resistance, with opponents saying statistical results weren't always applicable to unique patients. In other words, it was prescientific, anecdotally-minded [[holism]] for bloodletting and science and statistical evidence against it. | + | There is a case somewhat similar to that of Semmelweis'. [[Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis]] (1787-1872) was a pioneer of the use of statistics in medicine. His statistical analysis showed that [[bloodletting]] was ineffective, but his work also met with resistance, with opponents saying statistical results weren't always applicable to unique patients. In other words, it was prescientific, anecdotally-minded [[holism]] for bloodletting and science and statistical evidence against it. Louis, as opposed to Semmelweis, did have followers in his lifetime (Oliver Wendell Holmes, who wrote ''Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions'', was one of his students), and his ideas spread and layed the foundation of [[evidence-based medicine]]. |
==Significance of statistics== | ==Significance of statistics== | ||
Revision as of 00:57, 29 May 2013
Ignaz Semmelweis (July 1, 1818 – August 13, 1865) was a 19th century Austro-Hungarian physician. He is best remembered for his contributions in combating "childbed fever", using modern scientific methods and statistics.
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Background
Until the 17th century, most births took place at home. As so-called "lying-in" hospitals became popular, more and more women came to the hospital for childbirth. These births were usually attended by midwives or doctors. With the advent of these hospitals came the increase in the phenomenon of "childbed fever", or "puerperal fever". This phenomenon had been described centuries before, but it was not until the 18th and 19th centuries that the disease became more widely recognized. At the time of Semmelweis's career, the germ theory of disease had not yet been formulated. Several other ideas held sway, such as that of miasmas (basically "ill winds") and "humoral imbalance". Semmelweis received the classical medical training of the time, including indoctrination into these theories, which had not substantially changed in two thousand years.
Puerperal fever is a devastating disease. Today we simply call it "sepsis". It is caused when bacteria and bacterial toxins cause an overwhelming infection and immune reaction, often killing the patient. Even with modern antibiotics, sepsis carries a high mortality rate. During childbirth, the mother's blood stream is uniquely exposed to the environment, allowing for the ingress of bacteria. The disease would often kill up to 15-20% of mothers at lying-in hospitals.
Semmelweis's breakthrough
Dr. Semmelweis was not the only physician to take a special interest in the problem. In the U.S. Oliver Wendell Holmes had noted similar trends, but at the time, the U.S. was far behind Europe in medical science, and communication between American and European scientists was poor.
The unique contribution of Semmelweis was that he not only observed the phenomenon of childbed fever, but he kept detailed tables of how many women were affected, where they gave birth, and who attended the birth. At the time, most statistical techniques were primitive by modern standards, but did involve very careful data collection, allowing for modern reinterpretation of the data. What Semmelweis observed was that a much higher number of women were dying when attended by physicians and medical students at the First Obstetrical Clinic of the Vienna General Hospital, versus those attended by midwives only at the Second Clinic.
Semmelweis started eliminating all possible differences between the two clinics. He excluded overcrowding, since the statistics did not support the hypothesis – the Second Clinic was more crowded. He excluded climate, since it was the same.
His breakthrough occurred when a close friend died of a disease indistinguishable from childbed fever after cutting his hand during an autopsy. Semmelweis noted that often, doctors and medical students would perform autopsies, then go to the ward to deliver babies, one after the other. Midwives did not. He posited that particles of illness were making mothers ill, and that washing hands might prevent illness. He tested this by instituting a strict regimen of hand washing with a chlorine-lime solution before examining mothers or delivering babies. The death rate from sepsis quickly fell to the level seen in the midwife deliveries.
Despite testing his hypothesis successfully elsewhere, he was dismissed and ridiculed by other doctors.[1] Outraged at his rejection by the medical community, and the large numbers of avoidable deaths this led to, he began writing angry open letters to European obstetricians, calling them irresponsible murderers. His behavior became increasingly erratic – it is possible he was suffering from Alzheimer's, senile dementia, syphilis, or was distracted from social niceties by the unnecessary deaths of so many women.
In 1865, at the age of 47 he was forcibly committed to an asylum, where he died, ironically, of septicemia, possibly after being severely beaten by guards because of what they saw as unduly aggressive behavior on his part.
Paradigm shift and acceptance
Semmelweis did not live to see the success of his methods. Just a few years after his untimely demise, other researchers, such as Billroth (discovery of streptococci in pus), Pasteur (discovery of strep in the blood of a septic woman), and Lister (pioneer of antisepsis in surgery) helped overturn the old order. The humoral and miasma theories of disease were gone, to be replaced by the germ theory.
Some alternative medicine proponents compare the establishment's dismissal of Semmelweis' hypothesis to its rejection of alternative therapies. However, there is one crucial difference: Semmelweis had statistical evidence, which was rejected because of the establishment's close-mindedness, while most CAM has only anecdotal evidence, which is rejected because anecdotes aren't evidence.
There is a case somewhat similar to that of Semmelweis'. Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis (1787-1872) was a pioneer of the use of statistics in medicine. His statistical analysis showed that bloodletting was ineffective, but his work also met with resistance, with opponents saying statistical results weren't always applicable to unique patients. In other words, it was prescientific, anecdotally-minded holism for bloodletting and science and statistical evidence against it. Louis, as opposed to Semmelweis, did have followers in his lifetime (Oliver Wendell Holmes, who wrote Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions, was one of his students), and his ideas spread and layed the foundation of evidence-based medicine.
Significance of statistics
Ignaz Semmelweis was one of the first scientists to use formal data collection and statistics to test a hypothesis. Statistics was in its infancy as a science, but modern statisticians have evaluated his data and confirmed his conclusions. The use of the scientific method and statistics is the basis of modern medicine.
Footnotes
- De Costa, C. "The contagiousness of childbed fever: a short history of puerperal sepsis and its treatment." MedJourAustralia, Vol 177, 2/16 December 2002.
- Best M, Neuhauser, D."Ignaz Semmelweis and the birth of infection control." Qual Saf Health Care (BMJ), 2004;13:233-234.
- Broemeling, L.D. "Studies in the history of probability and statistics: Semmelweis and childbed fever. A statistical analysis 147 years later." Dept of Biostatistics and Applied Mathematics, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center.
- Semmelweis, I.P. "The cause, concept and prophylaxis of childbed fever." 1861.
- Nuland, S. "The doctor's plague: germs, childhood fever, and the strange story of Ignac Semmelweis." Williams and Willkins Norton, 2003.
- ↑ It didn't help that the antiseptic solution he used for hand washing was murder on the skin if used repeatedly. Modern surgeons use plain old soap and water.
