Pseudoscience
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Probably the single most destructive form of pseudoscience is [[quack]] medicine. Its toll financially, and in terms of human health and life is immense. There are two major categories of pseudoscience in medicine, the first is supernatural, psychic, and paranormal healing. This [[faith healing]] is popular with [[televangelists]] like [[Benny Hinn]]. Some religious sects, such as [[Christian Science]], are based exclusively around the pseudoscience that every major illness can be cured through supernatural means. Sometimes this form of healing is not overtly religious, quantum woo such as that in the [[Law of Attraction]] or more generally techniques like [[psychic surgery]] are often non-theistic but still "supernatural" in origin. Also "ancient traditions" such as [[acupuncture]] and [[chakra]]s fall generally into this category. | Probably the single most destructive form of pseudoscience is [[quack]] medicine. Its toll financially, and in terms of human health and life is immense. There are two major categories of pseudoscience in medicine, the first is supernatural, psychic, and paranormal healing. This [[faith healing]] is popular with [[televangelists]] like [[Benny Hinn]]. Some religious sects, such as [[Christian Science]], are based exclusively around the pseudoscience that every major illness can be cured through supernatural means. Sometimes this form of healing is not overtly religious, quantum woo such as that in the [[Law of Attraction]] or more generally techniques like [[psychic surgery]] are often non-theistic but still "supernatural" in origin. Also "ancient traditions" such as [[acupuncture]] and [[chakra]]s fall generally into this category. | ||
| − | Then there is pseudoscience that avoids supernatural claims, but instead relies on poorly supported or discredited "science." Often this kind of pseudoscience takes the form of pushing various [[vitamin]] or [[herbal supplement]]s as magic cures for diseases. Other forms include taking outdated concepts of disease and cures and claiming they are just as accurate or more accurate than modern medicine. [[Homeopathy]] is great example of this, based on a 200 year old theory of disease that wasn't even widely accepted when it was first proposed. Finally, when terrible things happen the desire to "blame" someone leads to false scapegoats. This is most clearly seen in the [[anti-vaccination]] movement, particularly about the role of [[thiomersal]] in [[autism]]. | + | Then there is pseudoscience that avoids supernatural claims, but instead relies on poorly supported or discredited "science." Often this kind of pseudoscience takes the form of pushing various [[pseudovitamin|vitamin]] or [[herbal supplement]]s as magic cures for diseases. Other forms include taking outdated concepts of disease and cures and claiming they are just as accurate or more accurate than modern medicine. [[Homeopathy]] is great example of this, based on a 200 year old theory of disease that wasn't even widely accepted when it was first proposed. Finally, when terrible things happen the desire to "blame" someone leads to false scapegoats. This is most clearly seen in the [[anti-vaccination]] movement, particularly about the role of [[thiomersal]] in [[autism]]. |
===Biology=== | ===Biology=== | ||
Revision as of 02:06, 6 December 2009
| Style over substance
Pseudoscience |
| Popular pseudosciences |
| Random examples |
Pseudoscience is any belief system or methodology which tries to gain legitimacy by wearing the trappings of science, but fails to abide by the rigorous methodology and standards of evidence that demarcate true science. Promoters of pseudoscience often adapt the vocabulary of science, describing conjectures as theories or laws, often providing evidence from observation, expert testimonials, or even developing what appear to be mathematical models of their ideas. However, in pseudoscience there is no real attempt to follow the scientific method, provide falsifiable predictions, develop double blind experiments, or publish in peer reviewed literature. Pseudoscience is designed to have the appearance of being scientific, but it lacks any of the substance of science.
History
With the rise of the enlightenment movement and the amazing success of the physical sciences in describing the natural world, a new-found respect for science was developing in the western world. Charlatans everywhere attempted to capitalize on this phenomenon by hawking a range of "scientifically proven" remedies, potions, treatments, and devices to cure the woes of man and bring peace and well being to all. The term "pseudoscience" developed in response to these con men, one of the first recorded uses of the word "pseudo-science" was in 1844 in the Northern Journal of Medicine, I 387: "That opposite kind of innovation which pronounces what has been recognized as a branch of science, to have been a pseudo-science, composed merely of so-called facts, connected together by misapprehensions under the disguise of principles".
In the beginning of the 20th century science had exponentially increased the boundaries of human understanding. With the development of quantum physics and relativity, science was presenting reality as a strange place divorcing the ability for humans to really ever truly understand the mess of particles and high velocity speeds that make up everything we think we know. These ideas persisted and proved themselves because of their ability to make amazing predictions that could be verified experimentally. Against this backdrop one of the most famous modern philosophers of science, Karl Popper, tried to understand what separated out the true science of people like Albert Einstein, from the intuitively less rigorous concepts such as psychoanalysis. Popper decided that the key was falsifiability. True science made specific predictions that could be proven false by examining empirical reality. Pseudosciences rarely cared about making predictions, and if they did they were unfalsifiable or impossible to test.
After Popper, philosophy entered the stage of social constructionism, with philosophers arguing that science was an illusion. Some, such Paul Feyerabend argued that it was impossible to separate science and pseudoscience, and in the end such a separation is undesirable anyway.[1]
However, the reality of pseudoscience and knowledge of the harm it causes was always, and still is, a unifying idea behind skepticism and most practicing scientists. With the emergence of New Atheism and its emphasis on critical thinking, an insurgence of effort to combat modern (and sometimes very non-modern) pseudoscience has developed. People like James Randi and his million dollar challenge, Carl Sagan, and Richard Dawkins have all actively and publicly fought against woo, quacks, cranks, creationism, and the thousands of other manifestations of pseudoscience.
Characteristics of pseudoscience
Vague and/or exaggerated claims and ambiguous language
One of the easiest ways to avoid being proven false is to not make any specific claims at all. Predictions in science are all about specificity and exactness. Operational definitions have to be clearly defined and shared, what you are measuring, how you will measure it and how you will determine if any results are significant are all hallmarks of good science. Pseudoscientific claims are never specific but rely on vague and ambiguous language, often encompassing grandiose claims.
In quack medicine a pseudoscience promoter might claim a given treatment "removes toxins from your system," never saying what toxins, or how they will be removed, or how you can tell if they will be removed. The toxins are the true cause of disease, never saying how they cause disease, and that removing them will cure you of all known afflictions.
In other areas of science, it is popular to claim that one has discovered a "unifying theory" that explains all of reality through special "energy" and "forces." Or that your perpetual motion machine works from hitherto undiscovered principles of magnetism.
Lack of peer review, and claims of vast establishment conspiracies
One of the single most important aspects of true science is replication and verification, particularly from third parties not involved in original experiments. This is the heart of peer review, where new ideas are laid out to fellow scientist with all the details of how to replicate and extend the research. While the social dynamics of peer review are not fool proof, and many interesting issues can emerge, there is still nothing better for advancing human knowledge. It is, of course, not surprising that people who promote pseudoscience want to avoid peer review like a plague.
If an idea has not been published in a single peer review journal, it is safe to say it is not science. Most people have at least a passing knowledge of the peer review system and so pseudoscience promoters often have to offer hand wavy explanations for why their ideas have not been published. The most common tactic is to claim that their is a vast conspiracy to suppress the research. In medicine it is common to blame Big Pharma for wanting to hide the fact that some natural product cures all known illnesses, because it will hurt their profits. In Biology creationist often claim that evolution is propped up by a vast atheist and materialist conspiracy.
Another tactic is for pseudoscience promoters to create pseudo-peer review. They will start their own journals that are "reviewed" by fellow promoters. These journals are often easily identified by their poor standards for inclusion, and their lack of inclusion in scholarly indexes (such as Google Scholar). One of the most obvious characteristics of pseudo-peer review is a total lack of interest in replicating or verifying each others work. Which brings us to the next point.
No attempts or interest in replication or outside verification
While closely related to a refusal to submit to peer review, the total lack of interest in any form of replication or outside verification is an important issue in and of itself. Pseudoscience is presented as a completed package, a done deal. Pseudoscientific ideas may claim to have unified physics, cured the sick, reduced all of mathematics to an algebraic proof, and created limitless energy. They claim There is no need to go any further, just embrace the idea and enter utopia.
Often the pseudoscience promoter will use the techniques of vague language to make outside verification impossible, or will offer the secrets only to those people who are deemed worthy, or who pay large sums of money. If by chance, someone attempts to replicate or verify the idea and fails they must be either stupid or a paid shill for the evil conspiracy out to hide the truth.
This embracing of the idea that the problem is solved and needs no verification is also the source for our next major characteristic of pseudoscience.
Stasis, and hostility towards development or change of the idea
Pseudoscience is embraced by its proponents with almost religious fervour. Since the idea can never be wrong, there is very little that needs to be changed or should be changed. This is most aptly seen in pseudoscience ideas that have been around for generations such as homeopathy or acupuncture. One is hard pressed to find significant differences between the basic idea proposed 300 or 3000 years ago and the beliefs and practices of modern day quacks.
This is in marked contrast to real science, where stasis of a few years is rare, let alone decades or centuries. The difference between physics as proposed by Sir Isaac Newton and the modern day is huge. Despite what creationists like to claim, Charles Darwin's idea of evolution by natural selection has gone through huge changes with the advent of genetics, developmental biology and hundred of other fields.
While progress in science can be rough, and personalities can clash, nothing can compare to the outright hostility of a pseudoscience promoter when faced with having his ideas developed or changed. Any such attempts will usually mark the upstart as a member of the establishment out to undermine truth once again.
Refusal to use the scientific method, or the claim that it can not be used
Rarely do pseudoscience promoters discuss experimental evidence when out pushing their falsehoods. But in debates that inevitably emerge, they must sometimes face the question of why don't they submit to the basic practice of science. This is commonly seen in medical woo where the gold standard of double blind study would clearly show the ideas to be false. Most promoters will refuse to do the studies, and often claim that their ideas are somehow impossible to test through standard means.
This special pleading is often hidden in a positive light. For example, promoters of "alternative medicine" will claim that the "whole body" approach to healing requires full disclosure between the doctor and patient. Homeopaths claim that true remedies must be tailor-made and can not thus be tested against any kind of standard.
Other techniques are to claim that attempts to apply skepticism or testing to the idea destroys it. This is common in various forms of psychic woo where skeptics disrupt the delicate telepathic waves. Many pseudoscience concepts based around supernatural causes will claim that the causes of phenomenon have agency and will not willingly be tested in such a manner.
Misuse of scientific terms
One of the easiest ways to gain the trappings of science is to describe pseudoscience using the words of science, or terms that sound scientific. Often aptly described as technobabble or equivocation. This is easiest to do with scientific concepts that are poorly understood with the general public. One of the favorite targets for pseudoscience promoters is the use of quantum woo. Where waves, particles, strings and force lines magically come together to produce amazing consequences. Law of attraction proponents, for example, claim that you can manifest anything you want to in reality (money, fame, sex, a better hair style) by focusing on it and "collapsing wave functions" in reality.
Other techniques often don't involving misusing existing terms but creating whole new terms in a style that seems scientific. An excellent example of this is the creationist baraminology and barmin, which is the fancy replacement for the old PRATT that animals only evolve within "kinds."
Poor standards of evidence
In science evidence is valued when it is collected in a rigorous manner and is as divorced from personal bias as possible. The classic example is in controlled, double blind studies. Though naturalistic observation is sometimes used, it is not proof of a theory, and is usually made in very large quantities. The use of statistics and an emphasis on statistical significance is also a strong hallmark of legitimate science.
In pseudoscience the value of evidence is almost reversed. Rigorous and controlled experiments, large data sets, and statistical reasoning are replaced with an emphasis on personal, anecdotal evidence and testimonials. Another major emphasis is on expert opinion. Anyone with letters after their name that are willing to say something positive about the idea are quoted as evidence the idea is valid. One well known example of this are the ridiculous lists of scientists that question Darwinian evolution put together by creationists . This is nicely countered with Project Steve that shows the ridiculous nature of this technique. Often the expert or scientist quoted in support of a pseduoscientific idea may not actually support it and the quote is taken out of context. This is called quote mining and is great indicator of pseudoscience.
One final problem is that pseudoscience promoters are only interested in evidence that confirms the initial idea. This confirmation bias means that any evidence that might contradict the theory is ignored.
Reliance on negative proofs
In science ideas are never really proven, the old adage that "proof is for math and alcohol." Pseudoscience promoters are big fans of the negative proof. They push the idea that some how the truth value of an idea is a binary claim, that if an idea is not proven false it must be true. However, most of the claims made are positive claims and as such would require evidence to back them up. The burden of proof is on the promoter, and extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.
Ideas are unfalsifiable
As Popper laid out a hundred years ago, one of the primary demarcations between real science and pseudoscience is that pseudoscience relies on pushing ideas that can not be falsified. To the casual observer, or those steeped in woo, this shields them from any true criticism since it is not "proof" that the idea is wrong.
Unfalsifiability can manifest itself in different forms. The most general sense is when an idea is proposed that is "not even wrong," or can never be tested, or can never be formulated in such a way as to make empirical predictions. For example, some young earth creationist claim that God created the world with the appearance of old age, and so all the science that shows that the earth is old is merely an illusion.
Sometimes specific concepts within a pseudoscience can be falsified, even though the general concept cannot. When this happens, the tactic often is to change the criteria for falsification, a strategy known as "moving the goalposts". Intelligent design is constructed almost completely from this approach. Many of the specific claims of intelligent design, such as irreducible complexity, have been falsified. However, the general concept that a supernatural entity designed life in its current form remains an unfalsifiable idea. Another area where moving the goalpost is common is in more liberal theologies that try to place God as the overseer of the natural world. Whatever cannot be explained by science, well, that is God. And when science comes up with an explanation, well then, we move God to whatever still can't be explained. This God of the gaps mentality is generally unfalsifiable, even if specific claims might be falsifiable.
Clear political and religious motivation
A huge red flag for pseudoscience is when the idea is pushed against the backdrop of a strong agenda that has nothing to do with the idea being proposed at all. This is most easily seen with creationism and intelligent design where the "science" is an afterthought to the general battle between the evil "materialist" and religion. This can often manifest itself in who is promoting the ideas as well such as when an individual suddenly starts promoting a pseudoscientific idea shortly after a major political or religious conversion, or a list of "supporters" of an idea are all unified in some sort of philosophy or religion.
Pseudoscience can also thrive in the backdrop of political as well as religious ideology. Lysenkoism thrived in Russia because it was put forward as part of the Communist ideology. Pseudoscience is also often used to repress minorities or "undesirables" such as the eugenics program. In modern right-wing politics the embrace of the religious right has lead to a politicization of science that links religious and political motivation in pushing various forms of pseudoscience.
Common fields plagued by pseudoscience
Medicine
Probably the single most destructive form of pseudoscience is quack medicine. Its toll financially, and in terms of human health and life is immense. There are two major categories of pseudoscience in medicine, the first is supernatural, psychic, and paranormal healing. This faith healing is popular with televangelists like Benny Hinn. Some religious sects, such as Christian Science, are based exclusively around the pseudoscience that every major illness can be cured through supernatural means. Sometimes this form of healing is not overtly religious, quantum woo such as that in the Law of Attraction or more generally techniques like psychic surgery are often non-theistic but still "supernatural" in origin. Also "ancient traditions" such as acupuncture and chakras fall generally into this category.
Then there is pseudoscience that avoids supernatural claims, but instead relies on poorly supported or discredited "science." Often this kind of pseudoscience takes the form of pushing various vitamin or herbal supplements as magic cures for diseases. Other forms include taking outdated concepts of disease and cures and claiming they are just as accurate or more accurate than modern medicine. Homeopathy is great example of this, based on a 200 year old theory of disease that wasn't even widely accepted when it was first proposed. Finally, when terrible things happen the desire to "blame" someone leads to false scapegoats. This is most clearly seen in the anti-vaccination movement, particularly about the role of thiomersal in autism.
Biology
Biology is subjected to probably the best known and most widespread pseudoscience of all--creationism. Whatever the manifestation, whether old earth, young earth, or intelligent design, creationism has been a prolific and long standing pseudoscience. It all stems from the perceived threat of evolution to religion.
While creationism has certainly dominated as the main pseudoscience in biology it is not the only one. Historically, lysenkoism and eugenics both were extraordinarily deadly. Purported difference between the innate abilities of different races such as in The Bell Curve share many characteristics with pseudoscience. Many of the pseudosciences in medicine overlap with biology, with denying AIDS and even the germ theory of disease and replacing it with ridiculous concepts like homotoxicology.
Physics
Physics has been home to some of the weirdest forms of pseudoscience. Because its concepts are particularly arcane to most lay people it sometimes seems to be possible to pass off just about any incoherent drivel as "science." By invoking the magic word "quantum" suddenly the most ridiculous, utterly impossible statements become easily accepted as true. This quantum woo pops up all over the place with cranks like Deepak Chopra and his quantum healing, or to Esther Hicks and her Law of attraction.
Physics also offers a home for many grand theories of everything. Unified field theories abound which bring together not only all of the forces of reality but also the human mind into one algebraic equation that explains everything. This form of pseudoscience is helped along by a lot of the popular press and books discussing unified field theory as the holy grail of physics.
Another very popular subject for physics-based pseudoscience is free energy. Whether through magnetism or orgone or any other made-up substances people have claimed for generations to have the solution to our world's energy needs in their garage. Cold fusion is similar to free energy, it had its heyday in the media before its original perpetrators were exposed as frauds. However, cranks regularly rant on internet forums that they have cold fusion powering their freezers right now. All of these ideas merge with engineering with claims to have perpetual motion machines or devices that can generate more energy than they consume.
And finally we have straight out denialism coated in "scientific" language with things like the moon landing hoax or anti-relativity tirades.
Math
Math is probably one of the most under-appreciated fields infected with pseudoscience, which is too bad since there is a wealth of great material. One of the biggest areas for exploitation is in the area of "proofs" and "theorems." Cranks love to "prove" theorems that have not yet been proven by real mathematicians, or to "disprove" theorems that have been proved, and even better to "prove" all ready proven theorems using high school algebra. Andrew Wiles and his proof of Fermat's last theorem has been a major lightning rod for cranks. Another favorite is squaring the circle.
In addition to proofs, there is a range of pseudoscience proponents that like to try their hand at destroying core concepts in math. The imaginary number is a common target, as well as irrational numbers. Finding an exact solution to Pi remains the most popular application of pseudoscience in this category.
Social Sciences
The various social sciences are absolutely rife with pseudoscience. The field is particularly dangerous because many of the ideas are actually "accepted" by some "experts" in the field. Psychoanalysis is a classic in psychology, it was the pseudoscience that Popper picked out to compare to the theory of relativity. Many of the diagnoses and testing methodologies in psychology, things like repressed memories, multiple personality disorder and the Rorschach test, are based on nothing but pseudoscience.
Sociology is also rife with pseudoscience. Margaret Mead and her Coming of Age in Samoa is one of the most well known cases. History is also a common victim to pseudoscience forming a whole area of pseudohistory. It is usually used in conjunction with conspiracy theories to disprove conventional time lines or evil government take overs like in the John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory or the 9/11 truth movement.
See also
- Lists of pseudosciences
- Double-blind
- The Fine Art of Baloney Detection
- Woo
- Pseudoscience in advertising
- Expelled:Leader's Guide
| Articles on RationalWiki related to pseudo-studies | ||
|---|---|---|
| Pseudoarcheology - Pseudohistory - Pseudolaw - Pseudolinguistics - Pseudomathematics - Pseudoscience - Pseudopsychology - Pseudoscience list - Pseudoscience in advertising - Pseudoskepticism - Pseudovitamin | ||
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