Minjok

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Minjok (Korean: 민족; 民族, lit.  'people clan') is a very important concept in Korean nationalism, and it has the same meaning as Volk in German language and Minzoku (民族) in Japanese.[1][2][3] In South Korea, the political Minjok ideology supports the rights of diaspora Koreans living abroad, and migration to their homeland.

In the English sense, there are no words that correspond exactly to 민족, but many scholars have translated it in various ways, such as "nation",[4][5][6] "ethnicity", and "people".[7]

Those who are against the Korean nationalist movement sometimes translate 민족 into "race". However, translating 민족 as "race" without context faces a lot of controversy and criticism.[8][9]

Origin[edit]

The word 민족 is originated from translating English "nation" during the Meiji Restoration in Japan, translating it as minzoku (Japanese: 民族; みんぞく, lit.  'people clan') in kanji characters.[10] The various political terms created in the Japanese Empire of the Meiji period are still closely related to the various political terms of East Asia.[11]

In the 19th century, the term kukmin (Korean: 국민; 國民, lit.  'state people') meant German "Volk", rather the term minjok (민족; 民族, lit.  'people clan') meant English "nation" but over time minjok gradually took on the meaning of "ethnicity".[12] Rather, unlike Japan, in modern South Korea, the term Kukmin has a relatively civic nationalistic, but conservative meaning.[13] Although minjok originally originated from "nation", the reason why it took on the meaning of "ethnicity" in Korea is related to the division of Korea from 1945 to the present. However, minzoku is also sometimes used in Japan as a meaning of "ethnicity".[14]

The reason why the meaning of 국민 changed from volk to nation and the meaning of 민족 changed from nation to volk was related to Japan's imperial policy in the early 20th century. Japanese liberals tried to include Koreans and Taiwanese as the same 'Japanese 国民(=國民)'. In addition, the Japanese argued that the incompetent 民族, according to the imperialist point of view, should be governed by the competent 国民. Koreans resisted this by advocating the concept of 민족(民族) Even in mainland Japan, the far-right insisted on 'Yamato 民族' ' rather than 'Japanese 国民'.[15] So today, kukmin means "nation" and minjok means "Volk".

Example[edit]

  • 민족 of the case used in the meaning of "Ethnicity"
    • 디아스포라 민족 [Ethnic diaspora]
    • 야마토 민족 [Yamato ethnicity; Yamato Volk]
    • 한민족 [Korean ethnicity; Korean Volk] — In North Korea, it is called 조선민족 instead of 한민족.
  • 민족 of the case used in the meaning of "Nation"
    • 나라 없는 민족 [Stateless nation]
    • 민족이란 무엇인가? [What Is a Nation?]
    • 민족자주 [National independence; National self-determination]
    • 민족해방 [National liberation] or 민족해방운동 [National liberation movement]
    • 배달의 민족 [Nation of Delivery]
  • 민족 of the case used in the meaning of "People"
    • 민족사관고등학교 [People's History High School]
    • 우리 민족 [Our people; Our Volk] = 한민족 [Korean ethnicity; Korean Volk]
    • 유대민족 [Jewish people; Jewish Volk] — South Koreans often equate their historical sorrow with that of Jews. In fact, both Koreans and Jews were persecuted by Germany and Japan, and many diaspora occurred due to historical confusion. And the governments of 'State of Israel' and 'Republic of Korea' were established in the same year in 1948.
    • 중화민족 [Chinese people; Chinese Volk]
  • 민족 of the case used in the meaning of "Volk"
    • 민족반역자 [Traitor to Volk]
    • 민족정기 [Volksgeist; Volk-based spirit]
    • 민족주의 [Nationalism; Ethnic nationalism; Volk-based nationalism]
      • 민족주의 사학 [Nationalist historiography; Völkisch historiography]
        • 민족사학 [[Korean] Völkisch historiography] — This is a method of describing the history of the Korean Peninsula, focusing on the Korean ethnicity. It started with left-wing anti-imperialist activists during the period when Korea was colonized by Japan. Therefore, unlike far-right historiography, it does not describe other ethnicity as inferior. But Korean nationalist historiography is also pseudo-historiography.
      • 종족 민족주의 [Ethnonationalism; Völkisch nationalism]
    • 친일반민족행위자 [Pro-Japanese anti-Volk activist] — This should be paraphrased as a 'pro-Japanese anti-Korean traitor'. It refers mainly to those who cooperated with Japan when Korea was under Japanese colonial rule. = 친일파 [Pro-Japanese faction]

In inter-Korean politics[edit]

Minjokjuui ([Korean] Nationalism / 민족주의; 民族主義, lit.  'people-clan-ism') refers mainly to nationalism in the pedigree and 'ethnic' and 'blood' sense. This concept combines ethnic Koreans mainly living in South Korea, North Korea and living in China, Japan, and the U.S. diaspora Koreans into "one nation".[16]

Although Koreans feel uncomfortable about Japan due to past colonial damages and see Japanese nationalism negatively, both Korean nationalism and Japanese nationalism follow German "Volk" nationalism traditions rather then French "civic" nationalism. The difference is that Japanese nationalism and German nationalism are prominent in the far-rightists due to their strong imperialist elements, while Korean nationalism is prominent in liberals and leftists due to their strong anti-imperialist elements.

However, depending on the context, the term minjokjuui is sometimes simply used to mean 'nation' in a non-ethnic sense in English. For example, "American nationalism" or "French nationalism", which is related to civic nationalism, is also called 미국 민족주의 or 프랑스 민족주의 in Korea.

South Korea[edit]

South Korea's "minjok" (=Volk) is a preferred political term for left-liberal Korean nationalists, and has been repeatedly mentioned several times when former President Moon Jae-in visited North Korea and spoke about peace on the Korean Peninsula.[17] South Korean right-wing conservatives support "state-based nationalism" (국가주의) and oppose "Volk-based nationalism" (민족주의).[18] South Korean left-liberals are more open to foreign voting rights, immigration, and minority rights than right-wing South Korean conservatives, but unlike countries such as Germany and Japan, the unjustified division of the Korean Peninsula created a mismatch between state-identity and Volk-identity. Therefore, the right-wing conservatism of South Korea values "state" in the anti-communist context, and the left-liberalism of South Korea values "Volk" in the anti-imperialist nationalist context.[19][20][21] However, in recent years, as South Korea has also become ethnically diverse, the South Korean political left does not often emphasize "Volk" except for issues with North Korea and Japan.[22]

North Korea[edit]

For more information, see: Juche

North Korea is putting forward "A Theory of the Korean Volk as Number One" (조선민족제일주의) as part of the Juche ideology.

Korean diaspora[edit]

Numerous Korean diaspora occurred during the Japanese colonial rule from 1910 to 1945, the division of the Korean Peninsula by the United States and the Soviet Union, and the Korean War. On the Korean Peninsula, Minjok has an important meaning that ties the diaspora together as part of the Korean community.

"Korean race"[edit]

“”The overriding problem throughout Myers’s book translation. For his race theory of [North Korean] ideology to work, Myers translates the term minjok as race, but these terms are not synonymous.
—Suzy Kim[23]

Anti-Korean Western scholars [excluding South Korean right-wing] or conservative media such as Shin Ki-wook, Brian Reynolds Myers, Robert E. KellyWikipedia, and The Chosun IlboWikipedia[note 1] often translate 민족(民族, Minjok) / 민족주의(民族主義) into "[Korean] race" / "[Korean] racial or ethnic nationalism".[24][25][26] The description of "Korean nationalism" article and "Korean ethnic nationalism" article in Wikipedia mainly reflects the views of such biased scholars close. The Wikipedia defines "Korean nationalism" as 국민주의 (lit.  state-people-ism) and "Korean ethnic nationalism" as 민족주의 (lit.  peple-clan-ism).[note 2]

However, Western scholars, South Korean conservative scholars and English Wikipedia, never describe Taiwanese '民族主義', Chinese '民族主义' and Vietnamese 'chủ nghĩa dân tộc' as "racial [or ethnic] nationalism".[note 3]. The Korean word 민족 means exactly the same thing as the Chinese or Japanese word 民族 for Minjok, which is also used in China, Taiwan, Vietnam and Japan as "nation", "Volk" or "ethnic group", rather than "race".[27][28]

In Korean, the synonym for "race" is 인종(Injong), than 민족(minjok).[29] For example, Koreans translate "racism" into 인종주의 and never into 민족주의.

In particular, it can be seen that it is more unfair to translate minjok as "race" because the word minjok in Korean sometimes means "nation" in the context where the meaning of "ethnicity" is excluded. For example, Ernest RenanWikipedia's book "What Is a Nation?" was translated as "민족이란 무엇인가?". Ernest Renan is a leading civic nationalist and anti-ethnonationalist.[30]

Pledge of Allegiance[edit]

The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag (Korean: 국기에 대한 맹세; Hanja: lit. '"Oath facing the national flag"') is the pledge to the national flag of South Korea. It was led by Park Chung-hee (Korean:박정희), a far-right South Korean anti-communist dictator and anti-North Korean/pro-Japanese "state-based nationalist" (국가주의[자]). In South Korea, "state-based nationalism" (국가주의) is an anti-communist or anti-North Korean right-wing ideology, and "Volk-based nationalism" (민족주의) is an ideology of left-liberals who represent the interests of diaspora Koreans, anti-Japanese decolonism, sympathize with North Korea, and aim for inter-Korean reunification.

It was established in 1972, and the text at the time was as follows:

Korean language English translation
나는 자랑스런 태극기 앞에 조국과 민족의 무궁한 영광을 위하여 몸과 마음을 바쳐 충성을 다할 것을 굳게 다짐합니다.I pledge, in front of proud Taegeukgi [Korea’s national flag], allegiance to my mother country, to devote my body and soul to the eternal glory of the joguk and the minjok.


However, there has been criticism that this requires excessive loyalty to the state/country. Thus, in 2007, the South Korean government issued a revised version of its Pledge of Allegiance:

Korean language English translation
나는 자랑스런 태극기 앞에 자유롭고 정의로운 대한민국의 무궁한 영광을 위하여 충성을 다할 것을 굳게 다짐합니다.I pledge, in front of proud Taegeuk [Korea’s national flag], allegiance to the Republic of Korea for the eternal glory of the country, liberty and freedom to the Republic of Korea.


Prior to 2007, the word 민족(minjok) in the text of the Pledge of Allegance was NEVER meant for "Korean race", but absolutely meant "Korean people". Also, the use of the word "Minjok" was not controversial at the time in 2007. Rather, the text of the Pledge of Allegance was revised overall because of the antipathy against 'state-based ultra-nationalism' (초국가주의) promoted by Park Chung-hee. And, the word 조국(joguk) also means "homeland", but it also means "country" or "state".[31] The Hankyoreh newspaper (한겨레신문), a center-left [against right-wing "state-based nationalist" dictatorship, anti-Japanese and pan-Korean] "Volk-based nationalist" (민족주의)[note 4][32] media criticized the Pledge of Allegance as [anti-Korean/pro-Japanese] "Shōwa Statism" (국가주의), saying it is similar to the content of The New People of the Emperor state (Korean:황국신민서사, Japanese:皇国臣民ノ誓詞) forced by the Japanese Empire to demand loyalty from the Japanese colonial rule in Korea.[33]

However, absurdly, Robert Kelly, B.R. Myers and other anti-Korean biographers deliberately mistranslated "Joguk" as "fatherland" [or "homeland"] and "Minjok" as "[Korean] race". Myers even criticized the Pledge of Allegance before 2007 as evidence of South Korea's strong 'race-based nationalism' (민족주의). Kelly and Myers supports 'state-based nationalism' (국가주의).[34][35] The bigger problem is that these incorrect translations are reflected in the English Wikipedia and Wikiquote.[note 5]

As another example, China's official National Anthem features the word "民族", but unlike South Korea's Pledge of Allegance, it has rarely been the subject of international controversy and criticism. Chinese "民族" and Korean "민족" mean the same thing.

Similar words[edit]

Kukmin (state-nation)[edit]

Kukmin or gugmin[36] (국민; 國民, lit.  'state people') is also sometimes used in the meaning of "nation". But kukmin is a concept limited to nation with state/country.[37] Kukmin can also mean "people" depending on the context.

Examples include:

In South Korea, if 민족 is close to the meaning of ethnic-nation, 국민 is close to the meaning of state-nation.

In China and North Korea, the term 国民/국민 is not often used because it mainly means a nation of anti-communist capitalist countries. Instead, in China and North Korea, the term 国民/국민 has a similar meaning to 公民/공민.

Injong (race)[edit]

Injong (인종; 人種, lit. 'human-race') is although "race" means exactly the same, it sometimes means "ethnicity" depending on the context. Injong can be seen as almost completely consistent with the meaning of "race" in the context of English.[38]

Jongjok (tribe)[edit]

Jongjok or chongjok (종족; 種族, lit. 'race-clan') is mainly translated as 'species', 'tribe', and 'ethnicity'.[39][40]

See also[edit]

  • Zhonghua minzu – In Chinese, "minzu" is the same meaning as "minjok" in Korean.

Notes[edit]

  1. ↑ Right-wing conservatives in South Korea tend to deny the political 민족 and 민족주의 in the 21st century because South Korean conservatives are pro-American, pro-Japanese, and hostile to North Korea.#
  2. ↑ Korean nationalismWikipedia and Korean ethnic nationalismWikipedia ─ Most of them are inaccurate, so you don't have to look at them.
  3. ↑ Taiwanese nationalismWikipedia, Chinese nationalismWikipedia and Vietnamese nationalismWikipedia. In Vietnamese, "chủ nghĩa dân tộc" is a Vietnamese notation for 民族主義.
  4. ↑ The "minjok" as the political left of inter-Korea refers to means German "Volk" and never "race". Volk-based nationalism is now shunned in Germany, but it has not always been associated with Nazism. Ethnic nationalism, similar to the anti-statist Volk-based nationalism of left-wing liberals in South Korea, also appeared among radical-liberals in Germany in the 19th century. In addition, left-wing nationalists in South and North Korea hate [anti-Korean-based] Japanese nationalist traditions, but they like German nationalist traditions. (While the Japanese nationalist tradition values the unification of "state" and "Volk," the German nationalist trandition values the "state" is merely a tool to prove the superiority of "Volk.") However, for this reason, the left-wing nationalist movement in South and North Korea has been controversial externally.
  5. ↑ Wikiquote refers to the 'Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag of South Korea (1972–2007)' as an example of Racism in South Korea. Even Wikiquote translated it as follows: "I firmly pledge, proudly in front of the South Korean flag, to loyally devote our body and soul to the eternal glory of the 'fatherland'(조국) and the 'race'(민족)." However, in South Korea, "Race" or "Racism" translates as 인종 or 인종주의 but never as 민족 or 민족주의.

References[edit]

  1. ↑ Tyranny of the Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950–1992 Charles K. Armstrong. (2013) "(minjok, similar to the German Volk)"
  2. ↑ Education, Language and the Intellectual Underpinnings of Modern Korea, 1875-1945 Andrew Hall, ‎Leighanne Yuh (2022). pp.34. "... modernist conceptual term for the object of history, the minjok 民族(ethno-nation/Volk).27 However, the author of this editorial clearly ...".
  3. ↑ Routledge Handbook of Modern Korean History Michael J Seth (2016). pp.2. "... Volk” (Korean: minjok) from Japanese and Chinese writers and placed it at the center of history.".
  4. ↑ 민족. WordReference. "people, nation".
  5. ↑ 민족의 개념: 국민과 종족 사이 [On the Concept of Nation between People(gugmin) and Ethnie] by LEE, Dae Hee (2015). Korea Citation Index.
  6. ↑ Lee Ji-yun ed. (2021). 한국 보수 담론의 ‘민족’ 수사의 정치: 『반일 종족주의』(2019)와 『반일 종족주의와의 투쟁』(2020)의 ‘민족’. [Politics of Rhetoric of ‘Nation’ in Korean Conservative Discourse: Focusing on Anti-Japanese Tribalism(2019) and Struggle against Anti-Japanese Tribalism(2020). Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information.
  7. ↑ 민족 (民族) National Institute of Korean Language's Korean-English Learners' Dictionary. "people; ethnic group".
  8. ↑ Suzy Kim (2014). Mothers and Maidens: Gendered Formation of Revolutionary Heroes in North Korea
  9. ↑ "NEW YORK TIMES SPOTLIGHTS RACISM IN SOUTH KOREA". Hyphen Magazine (Asian America Unabridged). November 4, 2009. "... racism in Korea is very different from racism in the U.S. In Korea, it is based on the idea of ethnic purity, the Korean "folk" (minjok) not "race" ..."
  10. ↑ The Formation Process of‘ Minjok’ Concept in Korea by Park, Chan Seung (2008). Korea Citation Index. "Around 1906, the word‘ Kukmin (volk)’was more widely used than‘ Minjok (nation)’ because the Korean people had an aspiration to become a ‘new volk.’
  11. ↑ https://m.happycampus.com/report-doc/12226212/#detail
  12. ↑ 민족 (民族) National Institute of Korean LanguageWikipedia's Korean-English Learners' Dictionary "A group of people who have formed their own unique language, culture, and history while living together in a certain region over a long period of time.".
  13. ↑ 국민 (國民) National Institute of Korean Language's Korean-English Learners' Dictionary "People that compose a country or a person with the nationality of a country.".
  14. ↑ 民族 Jisho "Ethnic group​".
  15. ↑ https://m.happycampus.com/report-doc/12226212/#detail
  16. ↑ 민족주의 (民族主義) National Institute of Korean Language's Korean-English Learners' Dictionary "nationalism ... An ideology which aims to develop the politics, culture and economy centered round an ethnic group through its independence and unification.".
  17. ↑ [전문] 文대통령 15만 평양시민 대상연설…“우리 민족 함께 살아야” [Full text of President Moon Jae-in's speech to 150,000 Pyongyang citizens during his visit to Pyongyang]. 서울경제 (2018-09-19) "우리 민족의 운명은 우리 스스로 결정한다는, 민족 자주의 원칙을 확인했습니다. ... 우리 민족은 우수합니다. 우리 민족은 강인합니다. 우리 민족은 평화를 사랑합니다. 그리고 우리 민족은 함께 살아야 합니다. ... 나는 오늘 이 자리에서 지난 70년 적대를 완전히 청산하고 다시 하나가 되기 위한 평화의 큰 걸음을 내딛자고 제안합니다." [We have confirmed the principle of Volk(=national) independence that the fate of our Volk(=our people) is decided by ourselves. ... Our Volk are superior. Our Volk are strong. Our Volk love peace. And our Volk have to live together. ... I propose here today that we completely end our hostility of the past 70 years and take a big step toward peace to become one again.] ─ If this speech was spoken in Germany at the same time, it would be misunderstood as neo-Nazi.
  18. ↑ “좌파 민족주의서 우파 탈민족주의로 이동” [Moving from Volk-based 'nationalist left' to 'post-nationalist right']. 조선일보 [The Chosun Ilbo] (2007-09-03).
  19. ↑ Myers, Brian Reynolds (20 May 2018). "North Korea's state-loyalty advantage". Free Online Library. "Although the change was inspired by the increase in multiethnic households, not by the drive to bolster state-patriotism per se, the left-wing media objected ..."
  20. ↑ Cloudy forecast for Moon’s ‘Sunshine Policy 2.0’ East Asia Forum (2017. 07. 20). "In South Korean politics, liberal political parties often support a policy of engagement with North Korea. This is because left-wing politicians tend to value miunjok (the Korean race) over the North–South ideological and political divide. In a broader sense, liberals embrace ethno-nationalism — the notion that sharing the same bloodline is superior to temporary national partition. Conservatives on the other hand support regime-based nationalism, which puts emphasis on being South Korean and stresses the differences in social and political values between the two Koreas."
  21. ↑ The Foreign Policy Outlook of South Korean Progressives: Part II KEI (2012-02-22). "This worldview, in turn, informed South Korean liberals’ foreign policy instincts. Because they understand Korean history as a century of suffering under external imposition – first by Imperial Japan, then by the Cold War hegemons who sponsored Korea’s dictators – the liberals would aspire for independence, autonomy, and self-determination. This aspiration often takes the form of nationalism, anti-colonialism and skepticism toward international entanglement, which makes South Korean liberals distinctive from most of the center-left in post-industrial societies. Roughly speaking, in most countries with high standards of living (which usually are former colonizers), the right-wing tends to subscribe more to the nationalistic ideology while the left is more internationalist. In South Korea, a former colony, this dynamic is often reversed.
  22. ↑ 민족을 버린 윤석열 정부와 민족 없는 국익 [Yoon Suk-yeol's government and 'interests of the state' abandoned the concept of [Korean] Volk]. 한겨레 (2023-04-16). "보수가 민족을 버렸다는 것은 윤석열 정부가 평화 대신 대결을 선택했다는 것을 의미한다. ... 어쩌면 ‘민족’은 더 나은 미래를 위해 우리가 버려야 할 구시대 유물일지도 모른다. 실제로 역사는 민족의 이름으로 자행된 수많은 폭력으로 넘쳐나기 때문이다. ... 우리가 버려야 할 민족은 나와 다른 사람을 배제하고 폭력을 자행했던 민족이다. 민족을 버린 윤석열 정부에서 우리 모두를 위한 국익이 사라져 가는 이유이다." [The fact that South Korean conservatives oppose Volk means that the Yoon Suk Yeol government chose to confront [North Korea with the same Volk-based identity] instead of peace. ... Perhaps the Volk is an old relic that we should throw away for a better future. In fact, history is awash with numerous violence committed in the name of the Volk. ... But the concept of Volk that we really need to abandon is Volk that excluded me and others and committed violence, not Volk itself. Therefore, there is no 'interests of the state' for all of us in the Yoon Suk Yeol government that abandoned Volk [to hate North Korea in defiance of the human rights issues of Japanese war crime victims for cooperation with Japan].]
  23. ↑ Suzy Kim (2014). Mothers and Maidens: Gendered Formation of Revolutionary Heroes in North Korea
  24. ↑ Gi-Wook Shin, Ethnic Nationalism in Korea: Genealogy, Politics, and Legacy (Stanford University Press, 2006)
  25. ↑ Kelly, Robert E. (4 June 2015). Why South Korea is So Obsessed with Japan. Real Clear Defense. "It is now widely accepted that North Korea's real ideology is not socialism but a race-based Korean nationalism in which the DRPK is defending the Korean race (the minjok) against foreign depredation. The 'Yankee Colony' South Korea — with its internationalised economy, American military presence, cultural Westernisation, resident foreign population, and so on — cannot compete with this racial purity narrative."
  26. ↑ "New Pledge of Allegiance to Reflect Growing Multiculturalism". The Chosun Ilbo. South Korea. April 18, 2011. Archived from the original on April 20, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2011. "The military has decided to omit the word 'minjok,' which refers to the Korean race, from the oath of enlistment for officers and soldiers, and replace it with 'the citizen.' The measure reflects the growing number of foreigners who gain Korean citizenship and of children from mixed marriages entering military service."
  27. ↑ Race and Racism in Modern East Asia (2015). "... nations (Kor. minjok) and races (injong), and attempts to broaden the boundaries of the Korean ethno-nation by expanding it to include both Jurchen tribes and their purported Manchu descendants. ..." pp.268
  28. ↑ "NEW YORK TIMES SPOTLIGHTS RACISM IN SOUTH KOREA". Hyphen Magazine (Asian America Unabridged). November 4, 2009. "... racism in Korea is very different from racism in the U.S. In Korea, it is based on the idea of ethnic purity, the Korean "folk" (minjok) not "race" ..."
  29. ↑ Suzy Kim (2014). Mothers and Maidens: Gendered Formation of Revolutionary Heroes in North Korea
  30. ↑ "인종·언어·영토, 민족 구성 요건 아니다" [Race, language, and territories are not a constituent requirement of the nation] 한국경제 (2018.03.07)
  31. ↑ Pledge of allegiance is revised yet still resisted (July 8, 2007) Korea JoonAng Daily. "The government unveiled a revised version of the pledge of allegiance last week, which it said sounds less compulsory, and would encourage people to voluntarily express their loyalty to the country. However, some human rights groups oppose not just the revision but the pledge itself, which they say forces the people to be subservient to the country. They plan to hold rallies against it this week. Under a presidential decree dating to 1972, Koreans are required to recite the pledge of allegiance at public gatherings and at the start of each week of classes from elementary through high school: “I pledge, in front of proud Taegeukgi [Korea’s national flag], allegiance to my mother country, to devote my body and soul to the eternal glory of the country and the people.” As announced on Friday by the Ministry of Government Administration and Home Affairs the new version is: “I pledge, in front of proud Taegeukgi, allegiance to the Republic of Korea for the eternal glory of the country, liberty and justice.” The new version of the pledge will take effect on July 27, when a new law codifying procedures for ceremonial displays of affection for the nation, including saluting the flag, is put in force. “We changed some parts of the pledge of allegiance as they were outdated and sounded a bit oppressive,” said Jung Hyun-kyu, a director at the ministry."
  32. ↑ Kr.dictionary.search.yahoo.com (Archived)
  33. ↑ https://h21.hani.co.kr/section-021003000/2006/01/021003000200601030592011.html
  34. ↑ Kelly, Robert E. (June 4, 2015). "Why South Korea is So Obsessed with Japan". Real Clear Defense.
  35. ↑ Myers, Brian Reynolds (20 May 2018). "North Korea's state-loyalty advantage". Free Online Library. "The pledge to the flag was amended in 2007; schoolchildren now declare loyalty not to the homeland and the race but to a "free and just Republic of Korea." Although the change was inspired by the increase in multiethnic households, not by the drive to bolster state-patriotism per se, the left-wing media objected that the new oath "runs the high risk of calling forth violent and exclusive state-ism [kukkajuui]. ... (30) "Pyollo naulge omnun 'Kukki ui taehan maengse'" [A hardly improved "Pledge to the flag"], Hankyoreh, 6 July 2007, http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/opinion/editorial/220779.html; Pak Chung-hyon, "Kukki e taehan maengse wae pakkulkka?" [Why change the pledge to the flag?], Chosun, 7 July 2007, http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2007/07/07/2007070700046.html." (30)"
  36. ↑ 민족의 개념: 국민과 종족 사이 [On the Concept of Nation between People(gugmin) and Ethnie] by LEE, Dae Hee (2015). Korea Citation Index.
  37. ↑ 국민 (國民) National Institute of Korean Language's Korean-English Learners' Dictionary "People that compose a country or a person with the nationality of a country.".
  38. ↑ 인종 (人種) National Institute of Korean Language's Korean-English Learners' Dictionary. "The type of people such as Caucasian, Mongoloid, and Negroid, divided based on their physical characteristics including complexion, hair color, frame, etc.".
  39. ↑ 민족의 개념: 국민과 종족 사이 [On the Concept of Nation between People(gugmin' and Ethnie] by LEE, Dae Hee (2015). Korea Citation Index.
  40. ↑ 종족 (種族) National Institute of Korean Language's Korean-English Learners' Dictionary. "1. species ... 2. tribe".
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