Draft:Irrationalism
Thinking hardly or hardly thinking? Philosophy |
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The good, the bad, and the brain fart |
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“”The person who writes for fools is always sure of a large audience.
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—Arthur Schopenhauer, "Religion: A Dialogue and Other Essays"[note 1] |
Irrationalism is a umbrella term that designates specific philosophical currents that explicitly reject rationality and human reason (Latin ratio), usually in favor of a "non-rational" worldview.[1] The use of the term "irrationalism" is bit contentious as philosophical category, since it can used as a reductive snarl word to disqualify anything as either unreasonable or unscientific.
The generally agreed definition of a irrationalist ideology is one that takes a stance in opposing rationalism[note 2] and positivism
[note 3]. As such irrationalist thinkers propose that rationality and logic are erroneous in both theoretical and practical sense, and instead should be approached with other ways of knowing - such as intuition, will, and/or faith.[1][2]:89[3]
As alluded prior, irrationalism is an umbrella term and there is no single definitive school of Irrationalism. But depending on the area in which theses of irrationalism are advocated, one can distinguish between epistemological and metaphysical (alternatively dubbed ontological) positions of irrationalism; with the former arguing for inadequacies of human cognitive capacity, and the latter arguing the irrational structure of reality itself, which make it impossible to comprehend the world by rationalist means.
History[edit]
Early stages[edit]
Historical precedent for “philosophical” irrationalism can be found in classical antiquity, with pre-Socratic philosophers such as Empedocles and Pythagoras
, as well as poets like Pindar
. Irrationalist elements in ancient Greek Philosophy can also be found in philosophies of Platonism (and Neoplatonism
), (philosophical) skepticism and sophism.
[1] The philosophical and religious tradition of Taoism is also - if somewhat contentiously - considered an early form of a irrationalist philosophy.
The irrationalist ideologies proper started to formalize in the late 18th century and early 19th century, as a counter-movements to rationalism (or rather classical rationalism) and positivism, that starting gaining prominence during the Age of Enlightenment.[1] These positions were mainly presented by the Sturm und Drang movement[note 4], along with the interconnected ideologies of Jena Romantics
[note 5] and German idealists
[note 6]. Of German Idealists, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling
in particular tends to be identified as one of the definitive irrationalists the ideology has ever had. One of his earliest critics to accuse such was none other than Friedrich Engels, who stated that Schelling and his philosophy was the "first attempt to smuggle belief in authority, emotional mysticism, and gnostic fantasy into the free science of thought."
The mid-19th century brought a new wave of irrationalists, with Soren Kierkegaard and Arthur Schopenhauer regarded as the era's most impactful contributors. Around the same time, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution changed everything, and this too had an impact on irrationalist thinkers, who started to create systems either defying it or using it to justify their own irrationalism.[4][5][6]
1890s[edit]
Then came Friedrich Nietzsche, who is considered the one who made "irrationalism cool". Although when his works were first published during the 1870s and 1880s, he did not achieve true fame during that time. Only in the 1890s - after he lost his mental faculties - did his work start getting attention. Indeed, the environment and cultural zeitgeist of 1890s made it ripe for irrationalism to enter mainstream as "vogue" philosophy. This was primarily due to the spirit of the Fin de siècle, during which the counter-culture rebelled against materialism, rationalism, positivism, bourgeois society, and liberal democracy. This counter-culture saw the civilization being in crisis that required a kind of "reset", with ideas of emotionalism, irrationalism, subjectivism, and vitalism being seen as good instead.
Besides Nietzsche, Other major irrationalists ideologies and thinkers also began to surface in the 1890s. In Germany, the most important ones includes Wilhelm Dilthey (Epistemological hermeneutics and Historicism), Georg Simmel (Neo-Kantianism and anti-positivism) and Rudolf Eucken
(Practical idealism/Ethical activism). Meanwhile in France, French Spiritualism
became the big thing in irrationalism, with it presented by Émile Boutroux
, Jules Lachelier
and Félix Ravaisson-Mollien
. However, these French representatives would all be overshadowed by Henri Bergson
. Meanwhile in the USA, the philosophy of pragmatism
became the go-to form of philosophical irrationalism and was presented mainly by William James
and John Dewey
- although the matter if pragmatism qualifies as irrationalism still remains controversial.
1900 to 1945[edit]
The early 1900s was when irrationalism starting to birth fascist thinkers. Before World War I, writers like Georges Sorel (Marxist reformism and Nietzschean vitalism) and Gabriele D'Annunzio (D'Annunzio movement; individualism, existentialism and decadence) had a decisive role in shaping what would become known as Italian Fascism. Then, the World War I and it's aftermath in particular lead to a very consequential explosion of irrationalist thinkers, many who would lay down the groundwork for the interwar period fascism. In Germany, the political Conservative Revolution and the philosophical co-current of “bastard” Lebensphilosophie movement - presented by Spengler, Klages
(with Heidegger occasionally considered one) - would serve as one of the key parts in shaping Nazism. Per Georg Lukács; the Baeumler-Krieck-Rosenberg triumvirate of Nazi ideologues would have been impossible without the Lebensphilosophie (or prior irrationalist) thinkers.
1946 to 1989[edit]
So after irrationalism emboldened such destructive authoritarian figures to launch a near-cataclysmic war, you'd think nobody would touch the philosophy with a ten-foot pole. But alas, what happened instead was that the devastation and horrors witnessed led many thinkers to question the Enlightenment faith in reason and progress, which some saw as partly responsible for modernity’s catastrophic failures. In addition, the Cold War and subsequent divide between West and East, with East becoming home of Communism, resulted in anti-communist sentiment in the west. Which then helped create a form of philosophical irrationalism in the West, especially by influencing intellectual culture, academic philosophy, and political discussions.
The overt avoidance towards anything resembling communism sometimes led to a kind of cultural conformity that evaded complex ideas. Instead, "practical" and pragmatic philosophies were adopted, which claimed to be rational, actually limited what kind of philosophical ideas were considered acceptable. In a deeper way, this might even be seen as a form of irrational thinking. To avoid ruffling feathers, most of the left-leaning Anglo-American intellectuals chose to follow analytic philosophy instead. Although it focused on clear logic, analyzing language, and applying scientific methods; it did so without addressing any deeper questions about ideas, values, or assumptions that could be linked to political beliefs or wild guesses.
Even within radical leftist sphere, the Frankfurt School alumni (i.e. likes of Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer) began exploring critical theory and dialectics in works like Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944). In the process, they mounted an opposition towards "instrumental reason"—a way of thinking that uses logic and efficiency mainly for control and power. They argued that this approach caused problems in society and made people act irrationally, even though it seemed logical and scientific. Their work combines careful analysis with an understanding that there are also fundamentally unpredictable and irrational elements in culture and society.
In the 1950s and 1960s, Existentialism still prospered in Europe, following the horrors of World War II. Many Europeans at the time felt a deep sense of alienation, moral uncertainty, and distrust in traditional systems (i.e. religion, government, ideology). As such, Existentialism (with its focus on individual freedom, responsibility, absurdity, and authenticity) resonated with a population trying to make sense of a fractured world. In particular, Jean-Paul Sartre became the face of existentialism in Europe, with his works like Being and Nothingness (1943) and plays like No Exit (1944) gaining mainstream popularity. Existentialist themes appeared in literature (Albert Camus’s The Stranger), film (like The Seventh Seal by Ingmar Bergman), and even fashion and youth culture (the “existentialist” look—black clothes, cigarettes, jazz clubs).
Indeed, philosophical irrationalism would find home in western pop-culture and counter-culture. The post-war environment found a major growth in literature, art, and philosophy, with irrationalism securing a foothold amongst them. Rise of surrealism and dadaism
, as well as theatre of the absurd
and existentialist novels, all showed cultural expressions concerns regarding meaning, personal identity, and how rational progress had fallen short.
In the 1960s, the hippie subculture embraced philosophical irrationalism as a cultural stance; as it valorized emotion, intuition, mysticism, altered states, and anti-establishment views. It rejected the Enlightenment faith in reason, especially as expressed in modern Western institutions and culture. They saw establishments — governments, corporations, universities — as products of cold rationalism and technocracy; which were spiritually bankrupt and complicit in war (e.g., the one in Vietnam) and environmental destruction.
Then in the late 1960s to 1980s, postmodernism would arguably become the main form of irrationalist philosophy at the time. This movement was lead by three representatives of "post-structuralism" - Michel Foucault (French Nietzscheanism), Jacques Derrida (deconstructionism), and Gilles Deleuze (post-Marixsm) - who all questioned the Enlightenment's belief in universal reason, objective truth, and fixed meanings showed how reason is connected to power, language, and social rules. This made it harder to trust the idea of pure rationality. These thinkers often focused on things like desires, unconscious thoughts, and how identity can change.
1990s to present[edit]
In the 1990s, philosophical irrationalism was gifted by its most destructive weapon yet: the internet.
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Forms of Irrationalism[edit]
Ancient Greek progenitors[edit]
Philosophical Skepticism - while not inherently irrational - can be interpreted as such, particularly when it is used to justify extreme doubt, denial of knowledge or even pseudoskepticism.[7][8] Another case is Sophistry, with its connection with irrationalism lying in how truth, reason, and persuasion are treated—often subordinated to rhetoric, power, or emotion, rather than objective logic or rational inquiry. Why sophistry uses reason, its not necessarily for rational or philosophical ends; particularity when the main goal is not the pursuit of truth, but winning arguments by persuasion and manipulation. By using fallacious arguments and rhetoric to deceive and mislead - including making it sound like their argument is rational - they thus prioritized the skill of "winning" over the validity of the argument.[9]:531[10][11]
Late 18th/early 19th Romanticism and German Idealism[edit]
Sturm und Drang[edit]
Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) was a German artistic movement from mid-to-late 18th century. Although its followers/representatives used the term "Geniezeit" (Age of the Genius), when the movement was at its most influential, it would retrospectively be named "Sturm und Drang" in the 1820s, being named after Friedrich Maximilian von Klinger's
1776 play "Sturm und Drang".
The movement was spearheaded by Johann Gottfried Herder, with other noted non-German influences being Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Edward Young
and Thomas Percy
. The movement was one of the early strains of counter-enlightenment, emerging to rebel against the prevailing literary rationalist convention and instead emphasized the vigorous portrayal of individuals' emotional lives. The movement desired for return to nature, for originality, for national and folk identity, the longing for greatness and truth, the lust for action and social criticism, and ruthless subjectivity characterized the emergent young generation.
Its most noted representatives were Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller
and Johann Georg Hamann
, with other notable names being Lenz
, von Klinger
, Bürger
, von Gerstenberg
and Heinse
.
Jena Romanticism[edit]
Jena Romanticism (Jenaer Romantik) was a significant intellectual and artistic movement in Germany during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, centered in Jena, that emphasized imagination, emotion, intuition, and the individual's subjective experience, often in contrast to Enlightenment rationalism.
Key philosophical ideas included the integration of various fields of knowledge, a concept of "magical idealism" (primarily spearheaded by Novalis) where inner and outer realities were seen as interconnected, and a focus on "romanticizing" the world through art and poetry to achieve higher consciousness.
It's leading figures included Friedrich Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel
, Novalis
(alias Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg), and Friedrich Schelling
, with Caroline Schlegel
often acting as a central figure and host of their gatherings.
Naturphilosophie[edit]
Naturphilosophie (nature-philosophy) - aka Romantische Naturphilosophie (romantic nature-philosophy) - is a philosophical approach to the study of nature, that was characterized by an organic, vitalist and holistic vision, which seeks to overcome the mechanical philosophy and reductionism of contemporary sciences. It is a form of German Idealism and was primarily systematized by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, inspired mainly by Kant's Critique of Judgement
and Fichte's idealism. Besides Schelling, its other exponents include Johann Gottfried Herder
, Lorenz Oken, GWF Hegel, Johann Wilhelm Ritter and Carl Gustav Carus; as well as poets and authors like J.W. von Goethe, Friedrich Schlegel and Novalis.[12]
The "nature philosophers" (Naturphilosophen) exalted the use of intuition and the search for a symbolic meaning of phenomena, which they placed in relation to ideal principles. Thusly proposing to find a synthesis between opposite polarities, such as human being and world, empirical and metaphysical knowledge, subjectivity and objectivity, spirit and matter.
On plus side, the Naturphilosophie thinkers have been credited in forming theoretical formulations that allowed further developments in the field of natural sciences, such as homology, evolutionary progress, the study of physical and biological phenomena such as magnetism, electricity, the living cell. However, in Naturphilosophie, intuition had high priority as a method and accordingly "only the active use of intuition leads to the real determination of the original unity of matter and to the understanding of its ideal foundations." Even though Naturphilosophie would serve as influence on the philosophy of Schopenhauer and Bergson, it would fell out of favor and instead become popular with woo-peddling cranks. In particular, it found re-emergence in the esoteric movements of theosophy and anthroposophy, in which the correspondence between the thinking spirit and organic nature takes on a cosmic value.
Existentialism[edit]
“”Man stands face to face with the irrational. He feels within him his longing for happiness and for reason. The absurd is born of this confrontation between the human need and the unreasonable silence of the world.”
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—Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays |
Existentialism is often considered a form of irrationalism because it emphasizes subjectivity, individual experience, and personal choice over reason and objective truth, and it often critiques rationalist philosophies for their perceived inability to grasp the full spectrum of human existence. Existentialist thinkers often criticize rationalism, which posits that reason is the primary source of knowledge and meaning, for failing to account for the complexities of human existence, such as anxiety, dread, and the search for meaning in an apparently absurd world.
The core tenet of "existence precedes essence" means that individuals create their own essence through their actions and choices, rather than having a fixed, rational nature. This inherent freedom and responsibility are often seen as transcending purely rational explanations.
Søren Kierkegaard - best known as the "Father of Existentialism" - is often considered an anti-rationalist or irrationalist. Sometimes this assessment goes bit overboard - in that he is misinterpreted as a purely irrationalist thinker - as Kierkegaard did engage with reason and logic in a sophisticated way, even while critiquing the limitations of pure rationalism. He explored how subjective experiences and personal choices shape our understanding of reality, moving beyond a purely objective, rational framework. He argued that truth is subjective, that leaps of faith beyond rational evidence are necessary, and that human existence is defined by anxiety, despair, and irrational passion rather than pure reason. Thusly arguing that reason has its limitations when it comes to understanding subjective experience, faith, and the nature of truth, particularly in religious matters.
Other notable ones are Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir,
Albert Camus and Martin Heidegger. Sartre wrote influential philosophical works like Being and Nothingness and explored themes of choice and responsibility in his novels and plays. de Beauvoir (who was Sartre's partner) integrated existentialism with feminist ethics, offering new insights into freedom and the human condition. Camus is known for works like The Myth of Sisyphus and The Stranger, who popularized existential dread and the absurd. Heidegger's - who was partly inspired by Lebenshilosophie - was deeply influential to existentialism as well (even though he tried to distance from it later) -- with his Being and Time exploring concepts of Dasein (human existence), authenticity, and finitude.
By the late 1960s and into the 1970s, existentialism started to lose its dominant position, partly due to the rise of structuralism, post-structuralism, and postmodernism.
Schopenhauerism[edit]
Schopenhauer is considered a key figure in 19th-century irrationalism. His philosophy is centered on the primacy of the "will" — a blind, irrational force underlying all existence; the driving existence and human suffering. He pointed out that human reasoning has its limits and that a lot of life is based on irrational wants, pain, and efforts that people make on purpose, which can't be completely understood or managed through logic alone. His dark view of the world focused on how life and existence are largely driven by irrational forces.
Late 19th century[edit]
Nietzscheism[edit]
—Friedrich Nietzsche, "Human, All Too Human" (Part One, Section 29, "Irrationality Necessary".) |
Nietzsche's philosophy challenged the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and logic, highlighting the role of instincts, emotions, and will in shaping human experience. Arguing rationality was just one human faculty, he defied the idea that "reason" is the ultimate authority. Instead, he argued that human behavior is driven by deeper, irrational forces. He elevated the importance of the will to power, instinct, art, and living positively, usually standing against strict, abstract, and logical systems.[13][14][15]
One of the clearest signs of Nietzsche's celebration of irrationalism comes in his concept of the "Apollonian and Dionysian dichotomy"[note 7], in which he championed the "Dionysian man"[note 8] as the basis for his idea of Übermensch - an individual able to transcend and rise above rationalist and religious morality and instead formulate and impose his own values.
Dilthey's Hermeneutics[edit]
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French Spiritualism[edit]
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Bergsonism[edit]
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Personalism[edit]
Personalism is not inherently irrationalist, but it emerged as a reaction to perceived rationalist and deterministic philosophies of the 19th century and, in some of its strains, emphasizes aspects that can be seen as distinct from pure rationalism.
While personalism places the person as the central principle of reality and emphasizes aspects like freedom, dignity, and relationality, it does so through a philosophical framework that values the individual and their unique experience, which can sometimes be contrasted with purely rationalist approaches that prioritize abstract reason.
Early to mid-20th century[edit]
Sorelianism[edit]
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D'Annunzio movement[edit]
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Lebensphilosophie[edit]
“”Like an all-devouring conflagration, "progress" scours the Earth, and the place that has fallen to its flames, will flourish nevermore, so long as man still survives. The animal- and plant-species cannot renew themselves, man’s innate warmth of heart has gone, the inner springs that once nurtured the flourishing songs and sacred festivals are blocked, and there remains only a wretched and cold working day and the hollow show of noisy "entertainment." There can be no doubt: we are living in the era of the downfall of the soul.
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—Ludwig Klages (unwittingly summarizing Lebensphilosophie in the nutshell.) |
Lebensphilosophie (German for Philosophy of Life or Life Philosophy) or alternatively German Vitalism, Vitalist-Irrationalism or Bastard Lebensphilosophie is a philosophical movement that gained prominence during the interwar period, particularly in Germany. On paper, Lebensphilosophie is an ideology that is meant to emphasize the "meaning, value and purpose of life" as its primary focus and was not supposed to be anything malicious by intent. Yet in practice, it ended up being used as a excuse to enable all the worst human impulses, as its most famous proponents and followers ended up being some of the most life hating cranks there are.
Most of the Lebensphilosophie works are usually nothing but repeating human biology-related words (especially blood -- because you know) and beauty of nature over and over and over again, while condemning technological/industrial progress and modernity to be all that's wrong. Unrestrained old caveman/agrarian/warrior cultures are considered great and desirable, while technology and religion has turned everybody into "disgusting pacifist weaklings." Naturally (no pun intended), vitalism is their favored form of science.
Originally, the term was essentially just another word for “life philosophy”, “way of life” or "lifestyle". But the doctrine for bastard Lebensphilosphie/vitalist-irrationalism began to be formalized by its earliest thinkers - Schopenhauer and Nietzsche - with additional influence from Historicism and Bergsonism. Then, sometime during World War I - and particularly after Germany's loss and the 1918 revolutions - the true “bastard Lebensphilosophie” started to really take form, that lead to the term being hijacked by this emerging ideology.
Polymath crank Oswald Spengler is generally agreed to be the first popular purveyor of the “bastard Lebensphilosophie”. Influenced primarily by prior irrationalist heavyweights Goethe and Nietzsche, Spengler's work is marked by a "Romantic Realism" and embraces elements of 19th-century German Romanticism, which often contrasted with rationalist approaches to philosophy. Spengler argued that the rise of rationality, intellect, and scientific thinking in a culture leads to its decline
and the loss of its "soul" or creative impulses, as seen in his distinction between "culture" and "civilization". Indeed, his breakthrough work - Decline of the West - offered a morphological-philosophical view of historical developments, while rejecting rationalist principles. This work found a audience in the disenchanted German public - in offering an "alternative" anti-rationalist explanation on why Germany lost the war - and fueled irrationalist sentiment in Germany.[16]:237[17]:158[18] Another noted popularizer was Martin Heidegger, although he would better become known as an existentialist philosopher down the lane.
In Germany, Spengler and Heidegger would be followed by the likes of Ludwig Klages, Hans Driesch
, and Hermann Graf Keyserling
, who are considered the main representatives of Lebensphilosophie. Of the three, Klages is arguably the most definitive representative of Lebensphilosophie. However, unlike his predecessors/early rivals - Spengler (who is kept alive by crank magnetism) and Heidegger (who contributed something worth a damn) - Klages remains quite obscure, as his reputation got buried down with Nazi Germany's defeat - despite never actually fully collaborating with the Nazis.
Post-WWII to present[edit]
Postmodernism (Post-structuralism, Deconstruction, Deleuzoguattarianism)[edit]
Circa 1960s-1970s TBA
Accelerationism (Landianism & Dark Enlightenment)[edit]
Accelerationism is a set of speculative philosophical theories, movements and concepts, which analyze the transformations of advanced capitalist society, and which advocate an "acceleration" of capitalism and the processes historically associated with it, either by its capitalist and/or reactionary radicalization (Landianism/right accelerationism), or by its overthrow (Fisherism/left accelerationism -- which is not particularly relevant, as it embraces rationalism).
Based on the ideas of "May 68 movement" post-modernist French thinkers - Gilles Deleuze
and Félix Guattari
(who you might know from Anti-Oedipus), as well as Jean-François Lyotard, and Jean Baudrillard - Accelerationism proper originates from the 1990s, based on the ideas of experimental cultural theorist collective known as Cybernetic Culture Research Unit
- lead by Nick Land.
Right-wing/Landian accelerationism in particular embraces irrationalist thinking; with founder Nick Land's work (especially from the 1990s) mixing ideas from cyberpunk fiction, Nietzsche's concept of the will-to-power, Lovecraft's horror themes, and anti-humanist views. As such, his form of accelerationism rejects Enlightenment values, humanism, and the belief in democratic discussion. It embraces forces that are non-linear, impersonal, and chaotic. The notorious Dark Enlightenment is essentially an off-shoot of Landian accelerationism.
Duginism[edit]
Duginism is a political and philosophical ideology developed by the Russian giga-crank Aleksandr Dugin circa 1997. Its a development of an obscure philosophy known as Ilyinism[note 9] and combines traditionalism, anti-liberalism, Eurasianism, and geopolitical theories into a "coherent" worldview, often referred to as "Fourth Political Theory".
This Fourth Political Theory is derived from the fact that Dugin considers that the 20th century was dominated by three main political ideas: Liberalism (e.g., Western democracy, capitalism) Communism (e.g., Marxism-Leninism) and Fascism/Nazism. And since fascism and communism were both beaten, liberalism is now the biggest influence, which Dugin thinks it's decadent, nihilistic, and destructive. Thus his "Fourth Political Theory" tries to move past all three, rejecting their premises and building a new ideology focused on identity, tradition, and multipolarity... Which must be hard, since Fascism/Nazism was already the "Third Position" to counter Liberalism and Socialism/Communism; so not only are you countering two systems, but one that's already a counter.
Duginism postulates/reintroduces the old idea that Russia is "more than just a nation"; that it's a special civilization called Eurasian, different from both the West and the East. He wants the post-Soviet countries to join together under Russia's leadership, forming a "Eurasian empire" that stands against the Western liberal system, especially the United States and NATO. He also rejects Atlanticism, which is the Western geopolitical view, especially the values of the Anglo-American world.
In addition, Duginist geopolitical vision sees the world as a constant battle between "Land Power" (represented by Russia and Eurasia) and "Sea Power" (led by the U.S., UK, and their allies). He calls this the "Eternal Conflict," where tellurocracy (land-based power) faces off against thalassocracy (sea-based power). This idea comes from classical geopolitics, especially the theories of Halford Mackinder and Carl Schmitt.
Duginism is heavily inspired by traditionalist thinkers such as René Guénon and Julius Evola, who argued that modern society represents a spiritual and moral fall away from sacred, hierarchical, and eternal truths. This perspective advocates for a return to spiritual values, structured hierarchy, and diverse cultural traditions, and opposes materialism and secularism.
Duginism is philosophically irrationalist, as it is explicitly Anti-rationalist, Mystical/traditionalist, Anti-Enlightenment and critical of liberal-modern epistemology. While Dugin does engage with philosophy (especially Heidegger, Evola, Guénon, Schmitt, and others), his project is a deliberate break from reason-centered Western modernity.
Unsurprisingly, Duginism has been influential in certain circles within Russian politics and is frequently associated with Russian nationalism (being dubbed the "spiritual leader of Russian ultranationalism") and neo-Eurasianism. While Dugin himself is not involved with Russian government officials, his ideas match up with the messages the Kremlin has been pushing under Vladimir Putin. However, it's not clear exactly how much of an influence Dugin has had on Putin, though he's often called "Putin's Rasputin."
Trumpism and post-truth politics[edit]
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Contested[edit]
The following are ideologies that have been identified as irrationalist ideologies, but remain contentious as there is no widespread agreement regarding the applicability.
Platonism[edit]
Figure who is somewhat controversially considered a irrationalist influence is Plato. As while Plato primarily championed rationality and the pursuit of knowledge, he would occasionally touch upon irrationalism. According to him, the "human soul" exhibits fundamentally irrational aspects - such as emotions and desires - which influences human behavior. While Plato valued reason and rationalism, he didn't entirely dismiss the existence of the irrational side of the human, believing it can be "harmonized" by reason to achieve a more virtuous and fulfilling existence. The future irrationalists philosophers would either latch on to "human soul" being irrational argument, and/or to defy the proposition to harmonize human irrationality with reason.
Likewise, Neo-Platonism sought to integrate reason and mystical experience, rather than rejecting one in favor of the other. While they acknowledged the limits of human reason in understanding the ultimate reality, they did not abandon it as a tool for understanding the world and seeking union with the divine.
Pythagoreanism[edit]
Although Pythagoras is regarded as a vital figure in the development of mathematics, and natural sciences, his religious-philosophical movement of Pythagoreanism is seen as a early form of irrationalism. However, the total assessment of this is flawed, in that surviving materials regarding Pythagoras are very incomplete, with most of the accounts of the movement coming from authors who were either Aristotelians or Neoplatonists.
Taoism[edit]
While Taoism is not inherently irrationalist, it does emphasize aspects that may be seen as beyond the scope of purely rational thought. As while it values intuition and experience alongside reason, it does not reject reason entirely. Taoism encourages a holistic understanding of the world that includes the mystical and transcendent, but this does not necessarily equate to irrationality. Of course, this hasn't stopped more ignorant followers of Taoism to justify irrationalist behavior.
Hegelianism[edit]
Thought of GWF Hegel is contentiously considered a form of irrationalism, with this view primarily advocated by the likes of Karl Popper. Its not helped that Hegel is a representative of absolute idealism and proponent of naturphilosophie like FWJ Schelling is, latter considered a notable pioneer of irrationalism. But then on the other hand, Hegel and his philosophy has been criticized by noted irrationalist thinkers like Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, indicating incompatibility of his philosophy with mainstream irrationalism.
While Hegel recognized the limitations of purely rational approaches and acknowledges the presence of the irrational, he never outright advocated for irrationalism (like Nietzsche would). His goal is to understand the world, including the irrational, through reason and to show how reason ultimately prevails. Indeed, Hegel's famous dictum, "the rational is real and the real is rational," highlights his belief in the fundamental rationality of the universe and its capacity for comprehension through philosophical inquiry.
However, Hegel's concept of "Geist" (translated "spirit" and/or "mind") is contentious in regards to whatever its spiritual and/or woo concept or not. Hegel's concept of Geist is more complex and interwoven with his dialectical and historical philosophy and while "spirit" implies a supernatural entity, Geist is not supposed to be some separate, transcendent being. Rather its a kind of an immanent force, that could be considered the collective self-awareness of humanity.
However, Marxist thinkers - like Georg Lukács - instead see Neo-Hegelianism (and post-Marxist German philosophy in general) as an philosophy that advocates irrationalism. Lukács believed that after World War I, many philosophical schools, including parts of Neo-Hegelianism and Husserl's school, became increasingly influenced by irrationalist thought and vitalism/Lebensphilosophie, which he saw as a departure from a rational, materialist critique of society. Neo-Hegelianism's emphasis on the development of "second nature" through socialization and the internalization of cultural norms can be seen as a process that, for some, could potentially limit individual agency or transcend established social contexts in ways that might be perceived as non-rational or intuitive rather than purely logical.
American Transcendentalism[edit]
“”The primary wisdom is intuition; while all later teachings are tuitions.
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—Ralph Waldo Emerson |
American Transcendentalism began in the early 1800s and was led by thinkers like Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau
, and Margaret Fuller
-- being influenced by German Idealism (especially Kant’s idea of the "transcendental"), the Romantic movement, Eastern beliefs such as Hinduism and Buddhism, and mystical traditions.
Transcendentalism developed primarily in the context of the North American Unitarian movement, based on antitrinitarianism and Christian rationalism, which it in turn strongly influenced. This movement focused on several main ideas, such as the natural goodness of both people and the world around them, the value of using one's intuition and inner sense of right and wrong, the importance of the spiritual over the physical, a flexible view of religion that didn’t follow strict rules, and the belief in relying on yourself and gaining your own understanding.
American Transcendentalism isn't against reason, but it believes that reason by itself can't fully explain reality or truth. The movement thinks that intuition and personal experiences are just as important as logic when it comes to understanding the world and God. It is occasionally defined as "post-rational" or "supra-rational," because it aims to move beyond reason rather than dismiss it.
Egoism[edit]
Its debated about whatever Egoism - particularly in its normative forms like rational egoism - is rational or not. As philosophical stance, one can assume its actions are rational if and only if they maximize one's self-interest, which can be seen as a form of rational behavior by its proponents, with the critics arguing it is inherently irrational due to its incompatibility with psychological health or its dismissal of human freedom and other considerations beyond self-interest.
Still, the fact remains that many of its pioneering figures were opposed to Enlightenment ideals like reason and positivism, as well as egoism being considered a influence on later irrationalist thinkers like Nietzsche.
Max Stirner - widely recognized as a founder of egoism - was known to be a counter-enlightenment thinker who offered a radical critique of Enlightenment ideals like universal reason, humanism, and abstract notions of freedom and morality. Stirner challenged the idea of progress and the notion that modern individuals were more free than their predecessors, arguing instead that moderns were often enslaved by ideological forces such as Christianity and nationalism.
Stirner's philosophy, particularly in his work "The Ego and Its Own", can be understood as a radical rejection of Kantian ideals, especially Kant's emphasis on universal moral laws and reason as guiding principles for human action. Stirner argued that such universalisms (including Kant's categorical imperative, which requires moral laws to be applicable to all rational beings) are "spooks" or illusions that ultimately serve to alienate and control individuals by imposing external authorities and ideals.
Pragmatism[edit]
TBA
Philosophical Deconstruction[edit]
TBA
Analysis[edit]
Marxist views[edit]
Many Marxist thinkers believe that irrationalism is a part of bourgeois thought, especially in modern times. They argue that irrationalism philosophically reflects a degeneration of bourgeois ideology in the face of capitalist contradictions. As well as to obscure class realities and try hinder revolutionary change. They also point out that irrationalism is often mobilized in reactionary politics - like fascism - to protect capitalist interests.
By their account, Marxism is based on ideas like rationalism, materialism, and using science to study how societies and history work. Marxists believe that society is shaped by material conditions and conflicts between different classes, and these can be understood through logic, dialectics, and real-life observations. Dialectical materialism, which is the core idea of Marxism, says that the real world is made up of physical things and follows rules that can be studied and understood through reason. In this framework, irrationalism is often seen as anti-scientific and reactionary, obscuring the true nature of social relations and class exploitation.
Marxist thinkers - particularly Frankfurt School alumni Adorno and Horkheimer (in their Dialectic of Enlightenment) - believe that historically the the bourgeoisie, when they were first gaining power circa 18th and 19th century, supported Enlightenment ideas like rationalism, to fight against the old feudal system and religious hegemony. But once the bourgeoisie consolidated power, Marxists argue they began promoting irrationalist ideologies to justify its dominance and pacify the working class.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Marxists such as György Lukács and Antonio Gramsci
deemed that irrationalist philosophies - such as romanticism, mysticism, and vitalism - gained popularity because the ruling class's ideology was in trouble. As capitalism became more exploitative and unstable, irrationalist philosophies were seen as tools to divert workers from revolutionary consciousness - usually under banner of "common sense" to sustain capitalist hegemony.
As such, Marxist thinkers (like Lukács, Gramsci, the Frankfurt School, as well as Wilhelm Reich) deemed that the ruling class transmutates towards fascism. With increased dependency on irrationalism, the ruling class would abandon reason in favor of pushing myths, race, nation, and emotions - as a last ditch effort to bring the middle class together and stop socialism from growing.
Influence on fascism[edit]
“”I do not overlook the fact that there are irrationalists who love mankind, and that not all forms of irrationalism engender criminality. But I hold that he who teaches that not reason, but love, should rule opens up the way for those who rule by hate. Socrates, I believe, saw something of this when he suggested that mistrust or hatred of argument is related to mistrust or hatred of man.
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—Sir Karl Popper[19] |
Philosophical irrationalism significantly influenced the development of fascist ideology, especially in the early 20th century. Philosophical irrationalism didn't directly cause fascism, but it helped create an environment where fascist ideas could take root. While irrationalism is not identical to fascism, its ideas were used by fascist thinkers and leaders to oppose the values of the Enlightenment, democratic systems, and rational thinking associated with either socialism or liberals.
This is quite evident, as irrationalism is a philosophy that focuses on the limits of reason, the importance of emotion, intuition, will, and instinct. As well as doubt or dislike towards Enlightenment ideas such as progress, rationality, and universal truth -- with fascism more or less coming to existence as reaction towards these ideas. Philosophical irrationalism supported this rejection by challenging the idea that humans are mainly driven by reason; by questioning the belief in objective truth, logic, and scientific advancement. Instead, it argued that myths, traditions, and instincts are better ways to guide people's lives.
Irrationalism's - particularly the Lebenshilosophie strain's - glorification of will, action, and vitalism also plays part of the influence. Many irrationalist thinkers focused on the "will" as the central part of human nature; such as Schopenhauer's "blind will" and Nietzsche's "will to power." Fascism used these ideas to support strong leaders (who had a powerful will), using violence and military strength to show the nation's energy, and avoiding discussion or compromise in favor of taking decisive action. For example, Mussolini's Fascism exhalted "life as a struggle", and Hitler saw politics as a "matter of will" and not debate.
Emotion-driven myths and focus on collectives is also a link; as irrationalist thinkers often focused on the emotional and mythic parts of human life -- such as Bergson's idea of intuition, Nietzsche's critique of rational herd morality and emphasis on myth. Fascist regimes used myths and symbols to bring people together emotionally, instead of relying on logical discussions. Creating myths about national revival, decline, and renewal (like Rome for Italy or the Aryan myth for Germany), cults around leaders (such as the Duce or the Führer) and Mass rallies and rituals to evoke emotional identification with the collective. Irrationalism focused more on shared experiences and real, lived existence rather than on the rational, independent person. Fascism put the individual below the state or the nation and reason was seen as something that could divide people, so unity was believed to come from shared myths and emotions.
Philosophers like Heidegger, who was connected to both existential and irrationalist ideas, talked about being true to oneself through a sense of historical purpose. These ideas matched up with some parts of fascist thinking, even though Heidegger's support for Nazism is still a subject of debate.
Thus, by weakening belief in reason, democracy, and personal freedoms, irrationalism gave fascist groups a way to justify things like aggressive nationalism, strict control by a leader, a dislike for intellectuals, and the idea that war and struggle are noble.
György Lukács believed that irrationalist philosophy wasn't just coincidentally connected to fascism -- it actually developed in ways that made it more in line with, and eventually helped support fascist ideas. To Lukács -
as pointed previously - this development wasn't random but was linked to the structure of capitalism in crisis. Within his Marxist view, these circumstances needed irrational ideas to justify conservative political moves and stop revolutionary change. In Lukács' 1954 book The Destruction of Reason, he traces the development of irrationalist philosophy - particularly in Germany - from the late 18th century through the 19th and into the 20th century, culminating in Nazism and fascism. Lukács observes that from a philosopher to the next, the irrationalist philosophers became progressively more openly opposed to change and more strict in its control. In particular, he considered Oswald Spengler and Ludwig Klages for being most responsible for enabling the views of Alfred Rosenberg and other Nazi ideologists.
Historian Carl Müller Frøland deems that Nazi ideology was formed by the irrationalist Lebenshilosophie getting mixed with Völkisch movement ideology. Additionally deeming that the biopolitical vitalism of Lebenphilosophie being easily applicable to Social Darwinism.
Effect on American Conservatism[edit]
Irrationalism has slowly but surely embedded itself in American conservatism and its main representative, the Republican Party. This development is believed to have started after World War II/during early Cold War, presumably set off by mix of anti-Communist fervor and wishing to undo Franklin D. Roosevelt's social changes and return back to the less regulated and more conservative Calvin Coolidge era.
In regards to anti-communism, the cold war divide complicated the situation, thanks to fear of the probable nuclear annihilation that could be enacted by the Soviet Union and renewed red scare in the west. Though these fears weren't entirely unfounded, as communism - as implemented by leaders like Stalin and Mao - led to serious human rights violations and authoritarian control. Thus opposing it wasn't irrational—it was morally justified. Many conservatives and liberals had valid concerns about the concentration of power and the loss of personal freedoms that they associated with communism. Also, during 1950s and 1960s, Liberal-Conservatism was the majority ideology in the United States - primarily exemplified by Eisenhower's moderate, technocratic rationalism - so American Conservatism still (mostly) had a good head over their shoulders, for the time being.
But regardless, these circumstances fostered an us vs them environment, and while it energized American conservatism, it also warped it towards a new, troubling directions. It brought people together as a movement, but usually at the expense of thoughtful analysis, strong ethical principles, and a willingness to consider different ideas. As time went on, parts of the conservative movement grew more focused on ideas and feelings rather than careful thinking—something we can still see happening today.
What would ensue was reactionary thinking taking over principled philosophy. Instead of creating a clear and consistent political belief system, many conservatives focused on opposing communism. For instance, since communism was seen as atheistic and collectivist; the anti-communist conservatives started to support strong religious beliefs and extreme individualism. Sometimes, they didn't really think about whether these views made sense or could last. This led to a kind of “if communists are for X, we must be for Y” logic—reactionary rather than reflective.
Anti-communism also had the effect of frequently transforming political discussions into moral battles. The world was viewed as a "struggle between good and evil" -- instead of a comparison of different economic systems, forms of government, or ideas about human behavior. This black-and-white thinking made it difficult to have thoughtful or flexible conversations and pushed people toward strict, unchanging beliefs.
In the name of fighting communism, many American conservatives often backed anti-communist dictators, such as Pinochet, the Shah of Iran, or other military junta like Nicaraguan Contras. These were justified by irrational means that run afoul with any kind of moral clarity or principles, resulting in contradictory messaging about supporting freedom within United States while supporting authoritarian rule overseas that usually ignored values like liberty and justice.
The 1950s red scare - as best exemplified by Joseph McCarthy and the John Birch Society - also embedded irrationalism in American culture. The country was gripped by paranoia and encouraged censorship, and suppression of dissent, which contradicted core American values like free speech and due process. Conservatives who should have defended constitutional principles sometimes became irrationally punitive, trusting fear over reason.
In addition, to dismantle the FDR's legacy and wind back the clock, a new class of Conservative intellectuals emerged. Thinkers like Russell Kirk argued for a more organic, tradition-based society, which resonates with irrationalist skepticism of abstract rational systems (with Oswald Spengler having postulated similar ideas in Weimar Republic).
1960s-1980s would see the rise of the New Right - lead by the likes of Barry Goldwater, and later Ronald Reagan, who not only embraced faith, but started to distrust intellectual elites; being motivated primarily to act as a counter towards modern rationalist liberalism (e.g., the Great Society, secular humanism). The New Right would soon be joined by The Religious Right in the 1970s, who prioritized faith over secular reason, with hostility to certain forms of scientific rationalism (e.g., evolution, climate science).
The Reagan era brought about a shift that favored traditional values, religion, and national stories over scientific thinking. It promoted a style of leadership that valued simple, relatable ideas over complex academic discussions. Reagan's time in office focused more on powerful stories, positive images of the country, and symbolic actions than on detailed policies. This approach reflects the idea that people are often more influenced by stories and emotions than by any kind of logical arguments.
In recent decades, especially since the 1990s, its been observed that irrational ideas have become more visible in American conservative politics, especially after the rise of Post-truth politics. This has led to a more extreme form of conservative thinking, dubbed "postmodern conservative rhetoric." This approach ignores facts and scientific evidence in political discussions, such as denying climate change or doubting vaccines, which reflects a postmodern challenge to the idea of objective truth. Scholars like Jason Stanley and Timothy Snyder link this trend to a wider form of authoritarian irrationalism, where those in power decide what is considered true.
Indeed, this was arguably mastered by one Donald Trump, whose way of politics focused on emotions, group identities, and gut feelings, often leaving little room for logical debate or factual accuracy. This matches what some describe as "strategic irrationalism," where avoiding rational conversation is used to control media stories and strengthen group identities.[20][21][22]
Notes[edit]
- ↑ Somewhat ironic, considering Schopenhauer will inspire writers like this.
- ↑ As outlined in the works and studies of the likes of René Descartes, Gottfried Leibniz, Baruch Spinoza and Immanuel Kant
- ↑ See Auguste Comte
- ↑ Presented by Johann Georg Hamann, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Karl Philipp Moritz.
- ↑ Presented by Novalis, Friedrich Hölderlin, Friedrich Schlegel, August Ludwig Hülsen
- ↑ Presented by Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, F.W.J. Schelling, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, G.W.F. Hegel.
- ↑ Although this/similar concepts had been presented before Nietzsche.
- ↑ Dionysus being a Greek God of wine, dance and pleasure, representing passion, emotions and instincts -- as well as of irrationality and chaos.
- ↑ Which is a offshoot of Eastern Orthodoxy thought that was formed by Ivan Ilyin
-- whom Dugin has conveniently disowned.
References[edit]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Encyclopedia Britannica: Irrationalism, philosophy. Written and fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (retrieved March 24, 2025)
- ↑ Solomon, Robert C. (1972). From Rationalism to Existentialism: The Existentialists and Their Nineteenth-century Backgrounds. Harper & Row. ISBN 9780060463441. Retrieved October 6, 2025.
- ↑ Bevir, Mark, ed. (2010). "Irrationalism". Encyclopedia of Political Theory. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781452265759.
- ↑ Kaufmann, Walter (2016) [1956]. Existentialism From Dostoevsky To Sartre. Hauraki Publishing. p. 22. ISBN 9781786258670.
- ↑ Taylor, Charles (1992). Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity. Cambridge University Press. p. 350, 404. ISBN 9780521429498.
- ↑ Ruse, Michael (1999) [1979]. The Darwinian Revolution: Science Red in Tooth and Claw. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226731698.
- ↑ Rinard, Susanna (2018). Reasoning One's Way out of Skepticism. In Kevin McCain & Ted Poston, The Mystery of Skepticism: New Explorations. Boston: Brill. pp. 240-264.
- ↑ Berkson, William (1979). Skeptical rationalism. Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy 22 (1-4):281 – 320.
- ↑ Miller, H. (1947). An Historical Introduction to Modern Philosophy. Macmillan Company.
- ↑ Kingsley, K. Scarlett. 2024. “Relativism, King of All.” In Herodotus and the Presocratics: Inquiry and Intellectual Culture in the Fifth Century BCE, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. chapter, 38–91.
- ↑ Beiser, Frederick C., 'Lebensphilosophie and Irrationalism', Philosophy of Life: German Lebensphilosophie 1870-1920 (Oxford, 2023; online edn, Oxford Academic, 20 Apr. 2023), https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192899767.003.0008, accessed 6 Oct. 2025.
- ↑ Beiser, Frederick C. (2008). "4. Problems, Methods and Concepts of Naturphilosophie". German Idealism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674020702.
- ↑ Zhao, X. (2023). Nietzsche’s Critique of Rational Subjectivity and His Aphoristic Writing: ‘Let those who have ears hear’. Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy, 19(1), 212–228. Retrieved from https://cosmosandhistory.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1085
- ↑ Stegmaier, Werner. 2021. “Nietzsche’s Critique of the Reason of His Life: On the Interpretation of The Anti-Christ and Ecce Homo.” In Nietzsche as German Philosopher, The German Philosophical Tradition, ed. Otfried Höffe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. chapter, 278–300.
- ↑ Firestone, R. S. (2019). Oversimplification in Philosophy. Open Journal of Philosophy, 9, 396-427. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojpp.2019.93025
- ↑ Vrahimis, A. (2022). Bergsonism and the History of Analytic Philosophy. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 9783030807559
- ↑ Ashman, K., Barringer, P. (2005). After the Science Wars: Science and the Study of Science. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781134616176
- ↑ Protevi, John (2006). A Dictionary of Continental Philosophy. Yale University Press. p. 355. ISBN 9780300116052.
- ↑ Vol. 2, Ch. 24 "Oracular Philosophy and the Revolt against Reason" - The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)
- ↑ Robin, Corey (2018). The Reactionary Mind: Conservatism from Edmund Burke to Donald Trump. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190692001.
- ↑ Why Irrational Politics Appeals: Understanding the Allure of Trump. (2017). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781440855153
- ↑ Zafirovski, M. (2023). It Did Happen Here: The Rise of Fascism in Contemporary Society. Brill. ISBN 9789004538573