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Carnivore diet

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“”Cows are the dumbest animal In earth and we are doing them a favor by eating them.
—SteakAndIron (typical carnivore diet troll found on Twitter)[1]
“”There were many times that I would wake up in the middle of the night with arrhythmias and I thought that I was going to die from this.
—Paul Saladino describing his bad health on the carnivore diet[2]

The Carnivore diet (also known as the meat only or zero-carb diet) is a pseudoscientific fad diet popular on social media platforms such as Twitter and YouTube. You can only eat animal-based foods on the diet and you have to dogmatically avoid all carbohydrates, fruits, and vegetables because they are apparently evil.Do You Believe That?

The carnivore diet has been condemned by medical experts as dangerous and unscientific; any supposed benefits are based on anecdotal evidence.[3][4][5] Eating only meat deprives the body of necessary nutrients and causes vitamin deficiencies.[3][6] The carnivore diet is in direct opposition to science by condemning the consumption of all vegetables.[7]:262-263 Most advocates of the carnivore diet end up giving it up as it is not sustainable long-term. There is strong evidence that diets high in red meat increase risk of colorectal cancer.[8]

The diet is basically the opposite of veganism, but instead of vegetables, its followers have a hard-on for meat. Carnivore dieters are known to mock vegans on social media.[9] Some critics see it as a troll diet, used to piss people off.[10]

Carnivore dieting is associated with cholesterol denialism[citation NOT needed] and Bitcoin, the latter indicating that there's a scam afoot.[11] The carnivore diet has also been associated with online alt-right communities.[11][12]

Types[edit]

The modern carnivore diet is split into 4 different types:

  • 1. Strict carnivore diet – on this diet only animal-based foods can be eaten. This includes red meat, poultry, bone marrow, eggs, seafood and dairy products.[13][14] Both muscle and organ meats can be eaten. Carnivore diet social media influencers such as Shawn Baker, Anthony Chaffee, and Judy Cho say that organ meats are optional but not necessary.[15][16]
  • 2. Animal-based diet – Because the carnivore diet is restrictive and the drop out rate is high, many have converted to an "animal-based diet". This diet is built around meat but also adds fruit, honey and raw dairy. Paul Saladino who incorrectly claims to have coined the term "animal-based diet" has stated that a "nose-to-tail, animal-based diet consists of high-quality meat, organs, fruit, honey, raw dairy (if tolerated) and eggs".[17] Interestingly Saladino claims to eat up to 300g or 350g of carbohydrates a day on his "animal-based diet". Other online influencers promoting an animal-based diet include Lillie Kane who builds most of her diet around red meat but also eats some fruit and vegetables.[18]
  • 3. Bart Kay's 70% carnivore diet – Bart Kay claims that "any diet containing 70% or more animal products is carnivore".[19] Kay thus uses the definition of a HypercarnivoreWikipedia. The definition is problematic for humans and becomes a bit of a joke, for example, Bart Kay has admitted to eating platefuls of blueberries, pizzas, doughnuts and beer. It's not exactly what one would classify as a "carnivore" diet.
  • 4. Lion diet (also known as meat only diet) – The strictest type of carnivore diet promoted by Jordan Peterson and his daughter Mikhaila Peterson which is limited to ruminant meats (usually beef) and salt. The diet is promoted as an elimination diet with unproven health claims of disease reversal. In 2018, Jordan Peterson is on record for claiming "“I eat beef and salt and water. That's it, and I never cheat. Ever. Not even a little bit".[20] It is doubtful that anyone sticks to this type of carnivore diet long-term, even Peterson has since added other animal-foods to his diet and is telling people to eat eggs.[21] A notable proponent of a meat-only diet from the past was Blake F. DonaldsonWikipedia who died aged 73.[22]

Carnivore ancestors?[edit]

Carnivore dieters like to claim they know beyond a doubt that the earliest humans ate a strict meat diet. There is no dispute that our early ancestors ate meat, but a meat only™ diet is clearly bullshit. Our earliest ancestors, who lived millions of years ago in Africa, were omnivores and we do not know the frequency or proportion of meat in the diet of any early human species.[23]

Anthony Warner has spent much of his time debunking the nonsense of fad diets:

They dream away carbohydrate and yet to think that people survived that period on a low-carbohydrate diet makes little sense. The human body has a huge glucose requirement and the existence of many copies of the salivary amylase gene indicates that carbohydrate has always formed an important part of the diet for hundreds of thousands of years. When you do look at modern hunter-gatherers, they always know where the underground tubers are because they are an important source of carbohydrate.[24]:105

That said, there is still some scientific debate about the diet of Neanderthals, who are partly ancestral to some humans.[25] There are some exceptionally high levels of δ15N[note 1] in some Neanderthal remains, which would indicate high levels of meat eating: perhaps high levels of rotten meat eating[26][27] or perhaps not.[28]

Anthropological evidence contradicts what carnivore dieters claim about early humans not eating carbohydrates. For example, our paleolithic ancestors ate grains and legumes. In his book Diet Cults, Matt Fitzgerald quotes anthropologist Christina Warinner:Wikipedia

We have archaeological evidence from at least 30,000 years — that's 20,000 years before the agricultural revolution — of stone tools that look like mortars and pestles that people used to grind up seeds and grain", she said, adding that new methods of extracting DNA from dental plaque (her own line of research) had recently revealed that both Neanderthals and [other] Paleolithic peoples ate barley, beans, and tubers.[29]:59[note 2]

Inuit and Maasai[edit]

Part of a beluga whale butchered by the Inuit, sometimes eaten raw.
Vitamin C content of foods in the traditional Eskimo diet

There are historic human populations who survived almost exclusively on meat. The Inuit (Eskimos) of the Arctic survived on a diet that was very high in meat, including fish.[30] However, the Inuit diet also includes berries, roots, and seaweed, so it is not a strict carnivore diet.[31] It is likely that other ice-age cultures would've had a similar diet, with the only source of nutrition being seals, birds, mammoths, giant sloths, fish, etc. However, they didn't live particularly healthy lives, and this diet is more a testament to the ability of humans to adapt to some of the most extreme conditions on the planet rather than any particular ideal for human health.

The Inuit diet should not be confused with the modern day carnivore diet fad. The traditional Inuit obtain their Vitamin C from algae, berries, ringed seal liver, raw fish, raw whale skin, licorice root known as "Masu" and Mountain sorrel (a flowering plant in the buckwheat family).[32][33][34] A 1939 study in the Nature journal noted that:

It is well known that marine algae are used as food in Japan, China, Hawaii, and some algae are eaten on Iceland and on the coast of certain parts of Great Britain. The Eskimos eat them raw or dipped in boiling water (or broth) or with blubber oil. From this source, the Angmagssalik Eskimo get 50 per cent of their vitamin C.[35]

Carnivore proponents have also incorrectly described the Greenlandic traditional diet as carnivore when algae consumption has always been an important part of the Greenlandic traditional dietary pattern to avoid scurvy.[36] It is rather ignorant of carnivore diet followers to cite the traditional Inuit and Greenland diets as evidence that their carnivore fad diet of cooked grass-fed beef and eggs works long-term as these have nothing in common with traditional Eskimo diets that contain marine algae and are high in raw foods.

Carnivore diet advocates who quote mine Weston A. Price like to claim that the Maasai people of Kenya in Eastern Africa eat a strict carnivore diet of raw meat, blood and milk and no vegetables. However, a 2010 investigation into the Maasai diet found that more than 50% of their diet consists of plant foods. The Maasai consume a lot of fermented milk, but they also eat cornmeal.[37] Another study found that the staple foods of the Maasai are cow's milk (fresh or boiled) and ugali. Ugali is a maize flour porridge that the Maasai consume daily. The study found that over 58% of the Maasai diet is plant-based. This does not fit the definition of a carnivore diet.[38]

Vilhjalmur Stefansson[edit]

Modern carnivore diet advocates are obsessed with quote mining a 1929 study on an exclusive meat diet conducted on explorer Vilhjalmur StefanssonWikipedia.

Between January 1928 to 1929, Vilhjalmur Stefansson and his colleague Karsten Anderson undertook a study to demonstrate that they could live on an exclusive meat diet for a year.[39] The study was funded by the Institute of American Meat Packers (American Meat InstituteWikipedia).[39] The conclusion of the study from laboratory observer Walter S. McClellan was that it is possible for man to live for long periods on meat alone without ill effects but the diet was expensive "and was not one to be recommended for universal use".[39]

The study was funded by the meat industry, was not controlled (the subjects were observed only at a laboratory setting during intervals at Bellevue Hospital) and the results from the study were never replicated. A one year study can hardly be called "long-term". Despite this, the study is religiously cited by carnivores as "proof" their diet works long-term and is even promoted on carnivore websites selling grass-fed beef.[40][41] Carnivore websites fail to mention that the study was industry funded and that the subjects spent most of the time living at home. One such website called "The Carnivore Bar" attempts to associate the study with longevity, claiming "Vilhjalmur lived until the ripe old age of 82 years old".[40] However, there is no evidence that Vilhjalmur Stefansson adhered to a carnivore diet for decades of his life. After the 1929 experiment was finished he went back to an omnivorous diet.[39]

Interestingly, the other subject Karsten Anderson operated an orange growing business.[42] A fact not mentioned by the carnivore crowd.

Anti-fibre nonsense[edit]

Carnivore dieters reject and ridicule dietary fibre, which they claim is unhealthy and not necessary. They quote anti-fibre quack author Konstantin Monastyrsky.[43]

In reality, greater dietary fibre intake has been shown to lower the risk of both cardiovascular disease and coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and some cancers, including bowel and colon cancer.[44][45][46][47][48][49]

There are many other health benefits from fibre consumption including improvements in digestive health and weight management.[50] Lack of dietary fibre is dangerous to the bacteria in the colon. Christopher Gardner, a professor of medicine has commented that "Growing evidence suggests that in the absence of adequate fibre, the bacteria in the colon consume and thin the protective mucus lining, which then leads to impaired immune function and inflammation."[9]

Avoidance of fruit and vegetables[edit]

There are no health benefits to avoiding absolutely every single kind of fruit or vegetable. Based on reliable scientific data, public health organizations recommend increasing fruit and vegetable intake for the prevention of cardiovascular disease, cancer, and premature mortality.[51][52] Fruits and vegetables have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.[53]

A 2014 review found that "higher consumption of fruit and vegetables is associated with a lower risk of all cause mortality, particularly cardiovascular mortality."[54] Recent reviews have found that fruit and vegetable intake is associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer and bone fractures.[55][56] Consuming fruits and vegetables may significantly reduce the risk of biliary cancer and inflammatory bowel disease.[57][58] Carnivore diet advocates do not discuss this evidence.

Negative health effects[edit]

  • High levels of LDL cholesterol which can increase the risk of heart disease.[9] However, carnivore dieters such as Shawn Baker are cholesterol denialists so they are not bothered by this.[59]
  • High levels of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), which increases risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD).[60][61][62][63][64]
  • Constipation from lack of dietary fibre.
  • Folate (vitamin B9), Vitamin C, and Vitamin E deficiencies.[3][6]
  • Scurvy[65]

Eating a high quantity of red meat is not a good thing to do long-term as it increases all-cause mortality and risk of many diseases:

Meat-only diets that are predominantly lean meat can cause protein poisoning, leading to nausea, fatigue, diarrhea, and death because the human body is unable to process above a certain level of protein.[101]

Scurvy[edit]

A common claim from carnivore diet proponents is that no case studies of scurvy exist for those on a carnivore diet. However, there are case studies reported in the literature. For example a man who lived in rural Appalachia developed scurvy because he was only eating canned beef.[102] A child from Dubai who ate a diet of only red meat for 2 years developed scurvy, causing severe bone and joint abnormalities. He was put on Vitamin C replacement therapy for 2 months and was able to walk again.[103] Most modern carnivore diet proponents cheat by eating fruit for their vitamin C, so there will be no risk of scurvy.

Alt-right connections[edit]

The carnivore diet is promoted by alt-right online communities and social media platforms. The Gab social network hosts multiple groups for carnivore dieters. Gab’s founder, Andrew Torba, practices a version of the diet.[12] In America, the diet also has popularity among conservatives who associate vegetarianism and veganism with the left and liberalism.[12] Some far-right cranks embrace the diet in an attempt to piss off liberals.[104]

Notable proponents[edit]

Shawn Baker
  • Bodybuilder Shawn Baker, nicknamed the "Carnivore King".[9] In 2017, his medical license was revoked in part for "incompetence to practice as a licensee".[6]
  • H. L. Newbold
  • Jordan Peterson and his daughter Mikhaila claim to live on a meat diet that consists of only beef, salt, and water.[105][106][107]
  • Celebrity doctor Drew PinskyWikipedia[108]
  • Travis Statham, software engineer and admin for several online carnivore communities.[109] He claims to eat four to six quarter-pounder burgers for lunch.[9] Statham appears to support a weaker version of the carnivore diet, as he also eats cheese and eggs.[108]
  • Brian Johnson, piggybacking off the media success of Shawn Baker with the internet pseudonym "Liver King", is known for his promotion of an especially outlandish nearly total-carnivore, raw-organ diet, and promotion of "ancestral tenets" which are claimed to promote health and bodybuilding results. After making multiple claims that his bodybuilding results were fully "natural" with no steroid or hormone use, he was revealed to be taking a large number of hormones and steroids in a series of leaked e-mails.[110]

Other supporters[edit]

Opposition[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ↑ The ratio of nitrogen isotopes, 15N:14N
  2. ↑ Neanderthals are firmly in the Paleolithic technological tradition, so it's more accurate to say "Neanderthals and early modern humans ate barley, beans, and tubers."

References[edit]

  1. ↑ Cows are the dumbest animal ln earth and we are doing them a favor by eating them by SteakAndIron (8:55 PM · Aug 24, 2022) Twitter (archived from August 25, 2022).
  2. ↑ The Carnivore Diet with Paul Saladino, MD (archived from March 8, 2023).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 'Carnivore diet': New social media trend criticised by nutritionists as 'very damaging' by Rachel Hosie (13 August 2018 14:40 BST) Independent.
  4. ↑ I'm a Registered Dietitian and I really Don't Want You to Eat a Carnivore Diet by Abby Langer (August 7, 2018) Self.
  5. ↑ There's Something You Should Know About The 100% Meat 'Pure Carnivore Diet' by Peter Dockrill (17 September 2018) ScienceAlert. "Scientists say there's no evidence to suggest a 100 percent meat diet is good for you. In fact, it's more likely to do you harm."
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Please do not try to survive on an all-meat diet by Sara Chodosh (Published Aug 2, 2018 4:00 PM EDT) Popular Science.
  7. ↑ Diet Cults: The Surprising Fallacy at the Core of Nutrition Fads and Guide to Healthy Eating for the Rest of Us by Fitzgerald, Matt. (2014) Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781605985602. "Scientific support for the mainstream recommendation to eat a lot of vegetables (greens, root vegetables, legumes, etc.) is about as rock-solid as the evidence that seatbelts and air bags in cars save lives. Eating a lot of vegetables is arguably the single best thing you can do for your health. Those who eat the most vegetables have a reduced risk for a long list of chronic diseases, they look and feel better, and they live longer than those who eat the fewest veggies."
  8. ↑ Pattern of DNA Damage Links Colorectal Cancer and Diet High in Red Meat by Sharon Reynolds (July 22, 2021) National Cancer Institute.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 They mock vegans and eat 4lb of steak a day: meet 'carnivore dieters' by Olivia Solon (11 May 2018 04.00 EDT) The Guardian.
  10. ↑ What is the Carnivore Diet? All Meat Menu Is Part Bad Nutrition, Part Trolling by Andrew Whalen (Published Mar 05, 2019 at 10:45 AM EST; Updated Mar 14, 2019 at 11:57 AM EDT) Newsweek.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Inside the World of the 'Bitcoin Carnivores': Why a small community of Bitcoin users is eating meat exclusively. by Jordan Pearson (Sep 29 2017, 6:00am) Vice.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Why Right Wingers Are Going Crazy About Meat by Kelly Weill (Aug. 25, 2018) Daily Beast.
  13. ↑ What is the carnivore diet?. bbcgoodfood.com.
  14. ↑ What is the carnivore diet?. health.harvard.edu.
  15. ↑ Do you need to consume organ meat on the carnivore diet?. tiktok.com.
  16. ↑ Do I Need to Eat Organs On a Carnivore Diet?.
  17. ↑ The Ultimate Guide to the Animal-Based Diet. heartandsoil.co.
  18. ↑ From Carnivore to Animal Based...My Bloodwork Changed. youtube.com.
  19. ↑ @LillieKane Quits Carnivore !!!. youtube.com.
  20. ↑ My carnivore diet: what I learned from eating only beef, salt and water. theguardian.com.
  21. ↑ Jordan Peterson Told Me To Eat Two Eggs! This Changed My Morning Routine For The Better!. youtube.com.
  22. ↑ Blake F. Donaldson authored the book Strong Medicine in 1962.
  23. ↑ Meat-Eating Among the Earliest Humans by Briana Pobiner (2016) American Scientist 104(2):110. doi:10.1511/2016.119.110.
  24. ↑ The Angry Chef: Bad Science and the Truth About Healthy Eating by Anthony Warner (2017) Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1786072165.
  25. ↑ A new genetic analysis reveals that modern Africans have some Neandertal DNA too: Humans migrating back to Africa brought extinct relatives’ genetic material along for the ride by Bruce Bower (January 30, 2020 at 11:00 am) Science News.
  26. ↑ This scientist watches meat rot to decipher the Neandertal diet: Nitrogen-15 levels in putrefying meat could explain high levels of the isotope in hominid fossils by Laurel Hamers (6:00am, January 2, 2019) Science News.
  27. ↑ B53K-2204: Alternatives to Neanderthal Hypercarnivory — Experimental Study of the δ15N Values of Meat During Putrefaction by Kimberly Foecke et al. (14 December 2018) American Geophysical Union meeting.
  28. ↑ Exceptionally high δ15N values in collagen single amino acids confirm Neandertals as high-trophic level carnivores by Klervia Jaouen et al. (February 19, 2019) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. doi:10.1073/pnas.1814087116.
  29. ↑ Fitzgerald, Matt. (2014). Diet Cults: The Surprising Fallacy at the Core of Nutrition Fads and Guide to Healthy Eating for the Rest of Us. Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781605985602.
  30. ↑ See the Wikipedia article on Inuit cuisine.
  31. ↑ What Eskimos Eat To Keep Them Warm (Jan 14, 2019) FoodBeast (archived from January 16, 2019).
  32. ↑ Vitamin C in the Diet of Inuit Hunters From Holman, Northwest Territories. pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca.
  33. ↑ Vitamin C in Inuit Traditional Food and Women's Diets. sciencedirect.com.
  34. ↑ Dietary Adequacy among the native Eskimo. Masaryk University Faculty of Arts.
  35. ↑ Vitamin C Sources in Eskimo Food. nature.com.
  36. ↑ Vitamin C in East-Greenland traditional nutrition: a reanalysis of the Høygaard nutritional data (1936-1937). pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
  37. ↑ Nomadic people's good health baffle scientists (May 18, 2010 ScienceDaily. Materials provided by Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena.
  38. ↑ High content of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in red blood cells of Kenyan Maasai despite low dietary intake by Nadja Knoll (2011) Lipids Health Dis. 10:141. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-10-141.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 McClellan, Walter S. (1930). "The Effect of the Prolonged Use of Exclusive Meat Diets on Two Men". The Journal of the American Dietetic Association 6 (3): 216-228. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 The Carnivore Bar. carnivorebar.com.
  41. ↑ Vilhjalmur Stefansson: Arctic Explorer. texasgrassfedbeef.com.
  42. ↑ Medicine: Beef Eaters. time.com. Archived.
  43. ↑ What about Fiber on an All Meat Diet? (04 May 2015) Zero Carb Health (archived from April 6, 2016).
  44. ↑ Dietary fibre intake and risk of cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis by Diane E. Threapleton et al. (2013) The BMJ 347:f6879 doi:10.1136/bmj.f6879.
  45. ↑ High intake of dietary fiber and whole grains associated with reduced risk of non-communicable diseases (January 10, 2019) ScienceDaily. Source: The Lancet.
  46. ↑ Carbohydrate quality and human health: a series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses by Reynolds et al. (2019) The Lancet 393(10170):P434-445. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31809-9.
  47. ↑ Blow to low carb diet as landmark study finds high fibre cuts heart disease risk: Review commissioned by WHO says fibre in ‘good’ carbohydrates such as wholegrain bread and oats has protective effect by Sarah Boseley (10 Jan 2019 18.30 EST) The Guardian.
  48. ↑ Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Health Implications of Dietary Fiber by Wendy J. Dahl & Maria L. Stewart (2015) Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 115(110:P1861-1870. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2015.09.003.
  49. ↑ Dietary fibre, whole grains, and risk of colorectal cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies by Dagfinn Aune et al (2011) The BMJ 343 :d6617 doi:10.1136/bmj.d6617.
  50. ↑ Role of Fiber in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Review by M. Viuda‐Martos et al. (2010) Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 9(2):240-258. doi:10.1111/j.1541-4337.2009.00102.x.
  51. ↑ Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease, total cancer and all-cause mortality — a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies by Dagfinn Aune et al. (2017) International Journal of Epidemiology 46(3):1029–1056. doi:10.1093/ije/dyw319.
  52. ↑ Fruits, vegetables, and health: A comprehensive narrative, umbrella review of the science and recommendations for enhanced public policy to improve intake by Taylor C. Wallace et al. (2020) Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 60(13):2174-2211. doi:10.1080/10408398.2019.1632258.
  53. ↑ Dietary fruits and vegetables and cardiovascular diseases risk by Eman M. Alissan & Gordon A. Ferns (2017) Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 57(9):1950-1962. doi:10.1080/10408398.2015.1040487.
  54. ↑ Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies by Xia Wang< et al. (2014) The BMJ 349:g4490. doi:10.1136/bmj.g4490.
  55. ↑ Fruit and vegetable consumption and incident breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies by Maryam S. Farvid et al. (2021) British Journal of Cancer 125:284-298. doi:10.1038/s41416-021-01373-2.
  56. ↑ Fruit and vegetable intake and bones: A systematic review and meta-analysis by Juliana E. Brondani et al. (2019) PLoS One 14(5):e0217223. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0217223.
  57. ↑ Vegetable, Fruit Consumption and Risk of Biliary Cancer: Evidence from a Meta-Analysis by Jiaping Huai & Xiaohua Ye (2021) Nutrition and Cancer 73(8):1322-1332. doi:10.1080/01635581.2020.1800767.
  58. ↑ Association of Dietary Fiber, Fruit, and Vegetable Consumption with Risk of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis by Alireza Milajerdi et al. (2021) Advances in Nutrition 12(3):P735-743. doi:10.1093/advances/nmaa145.
  59. ↑ Why The Carnivore Diet Is Horrible (With Proof) by Jack Freeman (January 17, 2019) Only Freedom.
  60. ↑ Dietary Meat, Trimethylamine N-Oxide-Related Metabolites, and Incident Cardiovascular Disease Among Older Adults: The Cardiovascular Health Study by Meng Wang et al. (2022) Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 42:e273–e288. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.121.316533.
  61. ↑ Chemicals produced in the gut after eating red meat may contribute to heart disease risk (August 1, 2022) American Heart Association News.
  62. ↑ Study Sheds Light on Red Meat’s Contribution to Atherosclerosis Risk in Older Adults (September 20, 2022) Cleveland Clinic.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Study links frequent red meat consumption to high levels of chemical associated with heart disease (December 11, 2018) ScienceDaily. Source: NIH/National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.
  64. ↑ Impact of chronic dietary red meat, white meat, or non-meat protein on trimethylamine N-oxide metabolism and renal excretion in healthy men and women by Zeneng Wang et al. (2018) European Heart Journal 40(7):583-594. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehy799.
  65. ↑ Skeletal Manifestations of Scurvy: A Case Report from Dubai by Shahryar Noordin et al. (2012) Case Rep. Orthop. 2012: 624628. doi:10.1155/2012/624628.
  66. ↑ Food groups and risk of all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies
  67. ↑ Red Meat Consumption and Mortality: Results from Two Prospective Cohort Studies by Lukas Schwingshackl (2017) Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 105(6):1462-1473. doi:10.3945/ajcn.117.153148.
  68. ↑ Association of changes in red meat consumption with total and cause specific mortality among US women and men: two prospective cohort studies by Yan Zheng et al. (2019) The BMJ 365:l2110. doi:10.1136/bmj.l211.
  69. ↑ Associations of Processed Meat, Unprocessed Red Meat, Poultry, or Fish Intake With Incident Cardiovascular Disease and All-Cause Mortality by Victor W. Zhonget al. (2020) JAMA Internal Medicine 180(4):503-512. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.6969.
  70. ↑ Increasing red meat consumption linked with higher risk of premature death (June 12, 2019) Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.
  71. ↑ Changes in red meat consumption and subsequent risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: three cohorts of US men and women by An Pan et al. (2013) JAMA Internal Medicine 173(14):1328-35. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.6633.
  72. ↑ Eating meat linked to higher risk of diabetes (September 5, 2017) ScienceDaily Source: Duke-NUS Medical School.
  73. ↑ Meat, Dietary Heme Iron, and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus by Mohammad Talaei et al. (2017) American Journal of Epidemiology 86(7):824-833. doi:10.1093/aje/kwx156.
  74. ↑ A Diabetes Link to Meat (January-February 2012) Harvard Magazine.
  75. ↑ Red Meat Consumption and Mortality: Results from Two Prospective Cohort Studies by An Pan et al. (2012) Arch. Intern. Med. 172(7): 555–563. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.2287.
  76. ↑ Associations of dietary protein with disease and mortality in a prospective study of postmenopausal women
  77. ↑ Red and processed meat consumption and mortality: dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies.
  78. ↑ Unprocessed Red Meat and Processed Meat Consumption, Plasma Metabolome, and Risk of Ischemic Heart Disease: A Prospective Cohort Study of UK Biobank
  79. ↑ Red Meat and Colorectal Cancer by Nuri Faruk Aykan (2015) Oncol. Rev. 9(1):288. doi:10.4081/oncol.2015.288.
  80. ↑ Processed Meats Increase Colorectal Cancer Risk, New Report (September 20, 2017) American Institute of Cancer Research.
  81. ↑ Red and processed meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis by Zhanwei Zhao et al. (2017). Oncotarget 8(47):83306–83314. doi:10.18632/oncotarget.20667.
  82. ↑ Red meat and the risk of bowel cancer (15 March 2021) NHS (UK).
  83. ↑ Food groups and risk of colorectal cancer by Lukas Schwingshackl (2017) Int. J. Cancer 142(9):1748-1758. doi:10.1002/ijc.31198.
  84. ↑ Zhang Y, Zhang DZ. (2018). Red meat, poultry, and egg consumption with the risk of hypertension: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. 32 (7): 507-517.
  85. ↑ Too Much Red Meat Might Harm Kidneys, medically Reviewed by Zilpah Sheikh (January 02, 2024) WebMD.
  86. ↑ Red meat consumption linked to kidney failure by Tim Newman (July 15, 2016) Medical News Today.
  87. ↑ Red Meat Intake and Risk of ESRD by Quan-Lan Jasmine Lew et al. (2017) Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 28(1):304-312. doi:10.1681/ASN.2016030248.
  88. ↑ Food groups and nutrients consumption and risk of endometriosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies by Arman Arab et al. (2022) Nutrition Journal 21:58. doi:10.1186/s12937-022-00812-x.
  89. ↑ A prospective cohort study of meat and fish consumption and endometriosis risk
  90. ↑ Nutrition in the prevention and treatment of endometriosis: A review by Ayae Yamamoto et al. (2018) Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 219(2):178.e1-178.e10. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2018.05.034.
  91. ↑ Red and Processed Meat Intake Is Associated with Higher Gastric Cancer Risk: A Meta-Analysis of Epidemiological Observational Studies by Hongcheng Zhu et al. (2013) PLoS One 8(8):e70955. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0070955.
  92. ↑ Meat intake and risk of gastric cancer in the Stomach cancer Pooling (StoP) project by Ana Ferro et al. (2020) Int. J. Cancer 147(1):45-55. doi:10.1002/ijc.32707.
  93. ↑ Meat and dairy products intake is associated with gastric cancer: Case–control study findings by Reema F. Tayyem et al. (2023) Food Science & Nutrition 11:3788–3798. doi:fsn3.3364.
  94. ↑ Effect of Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption on the Risk of Gastric Cancer: An Overall and Dose⁻Response Meta-Analysis by Seong Rae Kim et al. (2019) Nutrients 11(4):826. doi:10.3390/nu11040826.
  95. ↑ Dietary Protein Sources and the Risk of Stroke in Men and Women by Adam M. Bernstein et al. (2012) Stroke 43:637–644. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.633404.
  96. ↑ Red meat linked to higher stroke risk (2011) Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.
  97. ↑ Red Meat Consumption and Risk of Stroke by Joanna Kaluza et al. (2012) 43:2556–2560. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.663286.
  98. ↑ Red Meat Consumption and the Risk of Stroke: A Dose-Response Meta-analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies by Cuili Yang et al. (2016) 25(5):1177-1186. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2016.01.040.
  99. ↑ Food groups and risk of coronary heart disease, stroke and heart failure: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies by Angela Bechthold et al. (2019) Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 59(7):1071-1090. doi:10.1080/10408398.2017.1392288.
  100. ↑ Determination of the level of evidence for the association between different food groups/items and dietary fiber intake and the risk of cardiovascular diseases and hypertension: An umbrella review by Masoumeh Jabbari et al. (2022) Nutrition Research 111:1-13. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2022.12.011.
  101. ↑ To meat or not to meat? New perspectives on Neanderthal ecology by Luca Fiorenza et al. (2014) Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 56:43–71. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22659.
  102. ↑ Scurvy in an unrepentant carnivore. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
  103. ↑ Scurvy in an Unrepentant Carnivore. cdn.mdedge.com.
  104. ↑ The Bizarre Fad Diet Taking the Far Right by Storm: "Carnivorism" advocates claim meat will cure health woes, replenish masculinity—oh, and piss off liberals. (September 7, 2018) Mother Jones.
  105. ↑ The Jordan Peterson All-Meat Diet by James Hamblin (August 28, 2018) The Atlantic.
  106. ↑ My beef with Jordan Peterson's all-cow diet by Emer O’Toole (Wed 19 Sep 2018 12.15 EDT) The Guardian.
  107. ↑ The Truth About The Buzzy Carnivore Diet: The psychologist’s daughter Mikhaila invented the beef diet to ease her health problems. It’s best taken with a pinch of salt by Emer O'Toole (19 Sep 2018 12.15 EDT) The Guardian.
  108. ↑ 108.0 108.1 What to know about the trendy, meat-only 'carnivory' diet: ABC News' chief medical correspondent warns a meat-only diet could carry risks. (July 27, 2018, 5:51 AM) ABC News.
  109. ↑ u/dem0n0cracy Reddit.
  110. ↑ TikTok ‘Liver King’ touted raw organ meat diet. He also took steroids: Brian Johnson gained millions of followers promoting misleading claims about the so-called ‘ancestral diet’ by Teddy Amenabar & Anahad O’Connor (December 6, 2022 at 10:36 a.m. EST) The Washington Post.
  111. ↑ 111.0 111.1 Dr Edward Dutton interviews Dr David Duke (August 16, 2022) Odysee.
  112. ↑ Health & Fitness 101 (Sep 2020) Anatoly Karlin.
  113. ↑ Dr Malcolm Kendrick Dr. Shawn Baker Podcast (Jan 3, 2022) YouTube.
  114. ↑ Professor Tim Noakes improves health on the carnivore diet Dr. Shawn Baker Podcast (Jan 22, 2021) YouTube
  115. ↑ Joe Rogan ate nothing but meat for 30 days and said his ‘energy levels were amazing’ by Cory Stieg (Feb 16 202010:01 AM EST; Updated Apr 17 2020At 1:47 EDT) CNBC.
  116. ↑ Benefits of the Carnivore Diet with Dr. Shawn Baker – Episode 2091 (Apr 29, 2022) Vinnie Tortorich Life Into Living.
  117. ↑ I Tried the Carnivore Diet and It Broke Me After 3 Days by Jack Crosbie (Nov 1, 2018) Men's Health.
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